Invitation to Psychology

278 ChaPteR 8 Memory

such as input, output, accessing, and information

retrieval. When you type something on your com-

puter’s keyboard, a software program encodes the

information into an electronic language, stores it

on a hard drive, and retrieves it when you need to

use it. Similarly, in information-processing models

of memory, we encode information (convert it to a

form that the  brain can process and use), store the

information (retain it over time), and retrieve

the information (recover it for use). In storage, the

information may be represented as concepts, propo-

sitions, images, or cognitive schemas, mental networks

of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning

particular topics or aspects of the world. (If you can’t

retrieve these terms, see Chapter 7.)

Explore the Concept Information-Processing

Model of Memory at MyPsychLab

In most information-processing models, stor-

age takes place in three interacting memory sys-

tems. A sensory register retains incoming sensory

information for a second or two, until it can

be processed further. Short-term memory holds a

limited amount of information for a brief period

of time, perhaps up to 30 seconds or so, unless

a conscious effort is made to keep it there long-

er. Long-term memory accounts for longer stor-

age, from a few minutes to decades (Atkinson &

Shiffrin, 1968, 1971). Information can pass from

the sensory register to short-term memory and

in either direction between short-term and long-

term memory, as illustrated in Figure 8.3.

This model, which is known informally as the

three-box model, has dominated research on mem-

ory since the late 1960s. The problem is that the

human brain does not operate like your average

computer. Most computers process instructions

and data sequentially, one item after another, and

so the three-box model has emphasized sequen-

tial operations. In contrast, the brain performs

many operations simultaneously, in parallel. It

recognizes patterns all at once rather than as a

sequence of information bits, and it perceives

new information, produces speech, and searches

memory all at the same time. It can do these

things because millions of neurons are active at

Short-term memory (STM)

1. Limited capacity


2. Brief storage of items (up to
   30 seconds if no rehearsal)


3. Involved in conscious
   processing of information

Transferred Transferred/Retrieved

Retrieved

Information

from

environment

Sensory register

1. Large capacity


2. Contains sensory information


3. Very brief retention of images
   (up to 1/2 second for visual;
   2 seconds for auditory)

Long-term memory (LTM)

1. Unlimited capacity

Where Memories Are Made

permanent

3. Information organized and
   indexed

Forgotten Forgotten

FiguRE 8.3 Three Memory Systems

In the three-box model of memory, information that does not transfer out of the sensory register or short-term

memory is assumed to be forgotten forever. Once in long-term memory, information can be retrieved for use in

analyzing incoming sensory information or performing mental operations in short-term memory.

Get Involved! Recognizing Rudolph’s Friends

If you took the recall test in the Get Involved exercise on page 277, now try a recognition test. From the

following list, see whether you can identify the correct names of Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer’s eight

reindeer friends. The answers are at the end of this chapter, but no fair peeking!

Blitzen Dander Dancer Masher

Cupid Dasher Prancer Comet

Kumquat Donner Flasher Pixie

Bouncer Blintzes Trixie Vixen

Which was easier, recall or recognition? Can you speculate on the reason?