Invitation to Psychology

16 Chapter 1 What Is Psychology?

is beneficial for everyone. Anecdotes are often

the source of stereotyping, as well: One dishon-

est mother on public assistance means everyone

on welfare is dishonest; one encounter with an

unconventional Californian means they are all

flaky. Critical and scientific thinkers want more

evidence than one or two stories before drawing

such sweeping conclusions.

7

Consider Other Interpretations. A critical thinker

creatively formulates hypotheses that offer rea-

sonable explanations of the topic at hand. In sci-

ence, the goal is to arrive at a theory, an organized

system of assumptions and principles that pur-

ports to explain a set of observations and how they

are related. A scientific theory is not just some-

one’s personal opinion, as in “It’s only a theory”

or “I have a theory about why he told that lie.”

It is true that many scientific theories are tenta-

tive, pending more research, but others, such as

the theory of evolution, are accepted by virtually

all scientists. Theories that come to be accepted

by the scientific community make as few assump-

tions as possible and account for many empirical

findings.

Before settling on an explanation of some

behavior, however, critical thinkers are careful

theory An organized sys-
tem of assumptions and
principles that purports
to explain a specified set
of observations and their
interrelationships.

other issues of interest to psychologists. As you

read this book, you may find yourself quarrel-

ing with findings that you dislike. Disagreement

is fine; it means that you are reading actively

and are engaged with the material. All we ask is

that you think about why you are disagreeing:

Is it because the evidence is unpersuasive, or is

it because the results make you feel anxious or

annoyed?

6

Don’t Oversimplify. A critical thinker looks be-

yond the obvious, resists easy generalizations,

and rejects either–or thinking. For instance, is it

better to feel you have control over what happens

to you, or to accept with tranquility whatever life

serves up? Either answer oversimplifies. As we

will see in Chapter 13, control has many impor-

tant benefits, but sometimes it’s best to go with

the flow.

A common form of oversimplification is ar-

gument by anecdote, generalizing from a personal

experience or a few examples to everyone: One

crime committed by a paroled ex-convict means

that parole should be abolished; one friend who

hates his or her school means that everybody who

goes there hates it; one friend who swears that

seaweed cured her headaches means that seaweed

Hypothesis

(a)

“Misery loves

company.”

Falsifiable (“Risky”)

Prediction

When people are

anxious, they are

more likely to want to

be with others in the

same situation.

Possible Outcomes

Anxious people are more

likely to wait with others

in the same situation.

Conclusion

Supports

hypothesis.

Anxious people are more

likely to want to be alone.

Refutes

hypothesis.

Anxiety has no effect

on behavior.

Refutes

hypothesis.

Hypothesis

(b)

“Dowsing

reveals

subterranean

water.”

Nonfalsifiable

Prediction

Dowsers will reliably

find water–unless the

planets are misaligned,

observers give off bad

vibes, etc.

Possible Outcomes

Dowsers find water.

Conclusion

Supports

hypothesis.

Dowsers do not find

water.

Dowsers

conclude that

results support

hypothesis

anyway.

FIGURE 1.1 The Principle of Falsifiability

The scientific method requires researchers to expose their ideas to the possibility of counterevidence, as in row

(a). In contrast, people claiming psychic powers, such as dowsers (who say they can find underground water

with a “dowsing rod” that bends when water is present), typically interpret all possible outcomes as support for

their assertions, as in row (b). Their claims are therefore untestable.