Invitation to Psychology

364 ChapteR 10 Behavior in Social and Cultural Context

grades is being selfish and disrespectful of adults.

But Australian students, who value individualism,

think that the same behavior is perfectly appropri-

ate (Forgas & Bond, 1985). You can see how the

Chinese might form negative stereotypes of “dis-

respectful” Australians, and how the Australians

might form negative stereotypes of the “spineless”

Chinese. And it is a small step from negative ste-

reotypes to prejudice.

Watch the Video In the Real World: Are Stereo-

types and Prejudice Inevitable? at MyPsychLab

of feminists and fraternity men. Stereotypes can be

positive (“Scots are thrifty and smart with money”)

or negative (“Scots are miserly and stingy”).

Moreover, some stereotypes are statistically

accurate; soccer moms are more likely than single

professionals to drive SUVs, after all (Jussim et al.,

2009). Stereotypes therefore are, as some psychol-

ogists have called them, useful tools in the mental

toolbox—energy-saving devices that allow us to

make efficient decisions (Macrae & Bodenhausen,

2000). They help us quickly process new infor-

mation and retrieve memories. They allow us to

organize experience, make sense of differences

among individuals and groups, and predict how

people will behave. In fact, the brain automati-

cally registers and encodes the basic categories of

gender, ethnicity, and age, suggesting that there is

a neurological basis for the cognitive efficiency of

stereotyping (Ito & Urland, 2003).

However, although stereotypes may reflect

real differences among people, they also distort

that reality in three ways (Judd et al., 1995). First,

they exaggerate differences between groups, making

the stereotyped group seem odd, unfamiliar, or

dangerous, not like “us.” Second, they produce selec-

tive perception; people tend to see only the evidence

that fits the stereotype and reject any perceptions

that do not fit. Third, they underestimate differences

within the stereotyped group, creating the impression

that all members of that group are the same.

Cultural values affect how people evaluate the

actions of another group and whether a stereotype

becomes positive or negative. Chinese students

in Hong Kong, where communalism and respect

for elders are valued, think that a student who

comes late to class or argues with a parent about

What is this woman’s occupation? Among non-Muslims

in the West, the assumption is that Muslim women who

wear the full-length black niqab must be repressed sexu-

ally as well as politically. But the answer shatters the ste-

reotype. Wedad Lootah, a Muslim living in Dubai, United

Arab Emirates, is a marriage counselor and sexual activ-

ist, and author of a best-selling Arabic book, Top Secret:

Sexual Guidance for Married Couples. She wrote it, she

says, because of a 52-year-old client who had many chil-

dren but had never experienced sexual pleasure with her

husband. “Finally, she discovered orgasm!” Ms. Lootah

reported. “Imagine, all that time she did not know.”

Percentage of boys who had abest friend in the out-group

40

30

20

10

0

After cooperative

activities were introduced

Before cooperative

activities were introduced

Eagles Rattlers

Figure 10.4 The experiment at robbers Cave

In this study, competitive games fostered hostility between the Rattlers and the Eagles. Few boys had a best friend

from the other group (left). But after the teams had to cooperate to solve various problems, the percentage who made

friends across “enemy lines” shot up (right) (Sherif et al., 1961).