Invitation to Psychology

Chapter 14 The Major Motives of Life: Food, Love, Sex, and work 487

are linked to the presence of certain gut microbes

(Liou et al., 2013). Yet another candidate is expo-

sure to cold viruses: Children exposed to adeno-

virus-36 are more likely to become obese than

children who are not infected, and this link has

been found in adults in Korea and Italy as well as

the United States (Gabbert et al., 2010). And fi-

nally, researchers are investigating environmental

pollutants that might be “obesogens,” chemicals

that disrupt endocrine function and cause animals

to store fat (Grün & Blumberg, 2006). These are

all intriguing ideas, but we must tolerate some un-

certainty until all of the culprits are identified and

their relative contributions are known.

Cultural Influences on Weight

and the Ideal Body

Eating habits, in turn, are shaped by a culture’s

customs and standards of what the ideal body

should look like: fat or thin, muscular or soft. In

many places around the world, especially where

famine and crop failures are common, fat is taken

as a sign of health, affluence in men, and sexual

desirability in women (Stearns, 1997). Among the

Calabari of Nigeria, brides are put in special fat-

tening huts where they do nothing but eat, so as to

become fat enough to please their husbands.

Cultural influences on obesity can also be

observed among white farm families. Farmers

originally ate large amounts of food for intrinsic

reasons: When you do hard, labor-intensive work,

you need a lot of calories. But today, many farm

families eat for extrinsic motives: to be sociable

and conform to family tradition. In the farm belt

states of the American Midwest, people are ex-

pected to eat huge, hearty meals and plenty of

3

The increased portion sizes of food and drink.

Servings of food and drink have become su-

persized, double or triple what they were only

one generation ago. Even babies and toddlers are

being fed as much as 30 percent more calories

than they need (Fox et al., 2004). In France, people

eat rich food but much less of it than Americans

do. Their notion of what a proper portion is—for

yogurt, soda, a salad, a sandwich, anything—is

way lower than in the United States (Rozin et al.,

2003).

4

The abundance of highly varied foods. When diets

are predictable and routine, people habituate

to what they are eating and eat less of it. That is

why all diets that restrict people to eating only a

few kinds of foods (only watermelon, only protein,

only whatever) are successful at first. As soon as food

becomes more varied, however, people eat more and

gain more weight (Remick, Polivy, & Pliner, 2009).

People will even eat more M&Ms when they are

available in a bowl containing ten colors than when

the same number of candies are in a bowl contain-

ing only seven colors (Wansink, 2006).

Other suspects in the mystery of increasing

obesity are being investigated. One is sleepless-

ness. Sleep plays an important role in regulating

weight, and many infants, children, and adults

are simply not getting enough of it (Bell &

Zimmerman, 2010). Another is a woman’s exces-

sive weight gain during pregnancy, now known

to produce infants of higher-than-normal birth

weight. That higher birth weight, in turn, causes

metabolic changes that put the infants at greater

risk of becoming obese adults (Ludwig & Currie,

2010). A third possibility has to do with the bacte-

rial makeup of the intestines. Research with rats

and humans finds that overweight and obesity

Get Involved! What’s Controlling How Much You Eat?

Many people believe that what they eat and how much they eat is regulated by how hungry they feel. But

the motivation to eat is complicated, as Brian Wansink (2006) demonstrated in a clever series of experi-

ments. Here are some invisible external influences on your eating habits identified in his research:

• (^) Package size: People eat more from a large container (say, of popcorn) than a small one.
• (^) Plate size: People eat more when they serve themselves on large plates rather than small ones.
• (^) Cues to how much has been eaten: People eat more from a buffet when waiters quickly replace
their dirty dishes, thereby eliminating telltale signs of how much food has already been consumed.
• (^) Kitchen and table layouts: People eat more when food and snacks are displayed prominently, are
varied, and are easily reached.
• (^) Distraction: People eat more when they are being distracted by friends and the environment.
The next time you are out with friends, note how much everyone is eating (including yourself), and
notice whether any of these influences are at work. If you are trying to lose weight, how can you alter your
own “food environment” to correct for these influences?