Chapter 1 What Is Psychology? 37• Psychotherapist is an unregulated term for anyone who does
therapy, including people who have no credentials or training
at all. Licensed therapists differ according to their training
and approach. Clinical psychologists have a Ph.D., an Ed.D.,
or a Psy.D.; psychiatrists have an M.D.; psychoanalysts are
trained in psychoanalytic institutes; and licensed clinical so-
cial workers (LCSWs) and marriage, family, and child counsel-
ors (MFCCs) generally have at least a master’s degree in social
work or psychology, although licensing requirements vary.
• Many psychologists are concerned about an increase in poorly
trained psychotherapists who lack a firm understanding of
research methods and findings, or use untested or ineffective
techniques.
Critical and Scientific Thinking
in Psychology
• One benefit of studying psychology is the development of
critical-thinking skills and attitudes. Critical thinkers ask ques-
tions, define terms clearly, examine the evidence, analyze
assumptions and biases, avoid emotional reasoning, avoid over-
simplification, consider alternative interpretations, and tolerate
uncertainty. These practices are not only useful in ordinary life
but are also the basis of the scientific method.
• Scientists are required to state hypotheses and predictions
precisely and formulate operational definitions (“define your
terms”); to gather empirical evidence; to comply with the prin-
ciple of falsifiability (“analyze assumptions”) and resist the con-
firmation bias; to be cautious in settling on a theory (“consider
other interpretations”); and to resist drawing firm conclusions
until results are replicated (“tolerate uncertainty”).
Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts
• In any study, the researcher would like to use a sample that
is representative of the larger population that the researcher
wishes to describe. But in practice, researchers must often rely
on “convenience samples,” which typically means college un-
dergraduates. Most of the time, that does not pose a problem,
but in some cases, conclusions about “people in general” must
be interpreted with caution.
• Descriptive methods allow psychologists to describe and predict
behavior but not necessarily to choose one explanation over oth-
ers. Such methods include case studies, observational studies,
psychological tests, and surveys, as well as correlational methods.
• Case studies are detailed descriptions of individuals. They are
often used by clinicians, and they can also be valuable in explor-
ing new research topics and addressing questions that would
otherwise be difficult to study. But because information is often
missing or hard to interpret, and because the person under study
may not be representative of people in general, case studies are
typically sources rather than tests of hypotheses.
• In observational studies, researchers systematically observe and
record behavior without interfering in any way with the behavior.
Naturalistic observation is used to find out how people behave in
their natural environments. Laboratory observation allows more
control and the use of special equipment; behavior in the labora-
tory, however, may differ in certain ways from behavior in natural
contexts.
• Psychological tests are used to measure and evaluate personal-
ity traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and
values. A good test is one that has been standardized, is scored
using established norms, and has both reliability and validity.
Controversy exists about the validity of even some widely used
tests.
• Surveys are questionnaires or interviews that ask people directly
about their experiences, attitudes, and opinions. They are dif-
ficult to do well; sampling problems and volunteer bias can
influence the generalizability of the results. Findings can also be
affected by biased questions and by the fact that respondents
sometimes lie, misremember their experiences, or misinterpret
the questions. Technology and use of the Internet can minimize
some of these problems, but people should be cautious about
tests posted on the Internet, because not all of them meet scien-
tific standards.Correlational Studies: Looking for
Relationships
• In descriptive research, studies that look for relationships be-
tween phenomena are known as correlational. A correlation is
a measure of the strength of a positive or negative relationship
between two variables, and is expressed by the coefficient of
correlation.• Many correlations reported in the media or on the Internet are
based on rumor and anecdote. An illusory correlation may oc-
cur because of a coincidental link between two variables. Even
when a correlation is real, it does not necessarily demonstrate
a causal relationship between the variables.The Experiment: Hunting for Causes
• Experiments allow researchers to control the situation being
studied, manipulate an independent variable, and assess the
effects of the manipulation on a dependent variable. Because
of the element of manipulation, ethical guidelines are especially
important in experimental research. These guidelines govern
studies with human beings, who must give informed consent
before participating, and also studies of animals, which must be
treated humanely.
• Experimental studies usually require a comparison or control
condition, and often involve random assignment of participants
to experimental and control groups. In some studies, those in the
control group receive a placebo, or fake treatment. Single-blind