516 Chapter 14 The Major Motives of Life: Food, Love, Sex, and work
learn rather than to show others how good
you are. Regard failure as a chance to learn
rather than as a sign of incompetence.
assess your working conditions. Everyone
has working conditions, even students. If
your motivation and well-being are starting
to wilt, check out your environment. Are
you getting support from others? Are you
being constantly interrupted? Do you have
opportunities to develop ideas and vary
your routine? Are there barriers that might
limit your advancement in your chosen
field?take steps to resolve motivational conflicts.
Are you torn between competing goals? For
instance, are you unhappily stuck between
the goal of achieving independence and a
desire to be cared for by your parents? The
reconciliation of conflicts like these is im-
portant for your well-being.For almost everyone, psychological well-
being depends on finding activities and
choosing goals that are intrinsically satisfy-
ing and on developing the self-efficacy to
achieve them. That is why it is important
to think critically about the goals you have
chosen for yourself: Are they what you want
to do or what someone else wants you to
do? Do they reflect your values? If you are
unhappy with your body, your relationships,
or your work, why? Think about it.• Motivation refers to a process within a person or animal that
causes that organism to move toward a goal—to satisfy a biologi-
cal need or achieve an ambition—or away from an unpleasant
situation.
• A few primary drives are based on physiological needs, but all
human motives are affected by psychological, social, and cul-
tural factors. Motivation may be intrinsic, for the inherent plea-
sure of an activity, or extrinsic, for external rewards.
The Hungry Animal: Motives to Eat
• Overweight and obesity are not simply a result of failed will-
power, emotional disturbance, or overeating. Hunger, weight,
and eating are regulated by a set of bodily mechanisms, such
as basal metabolism rate and number of fat cells; these mecha-
nisms keep people close to their genetically influenced set
point.
• Genes influence body shape, distribution of fat, number of fat
cells, amount of brown fat, and whether the body will convert
excess calories into fat. Genes may also account for certain
types of obesity; the ob gene regulates leptin, which enables the
hypothalamus to regulate appetite and metabolism and may be
critical during infancy. The hormone ghrelin spurs appetite and
leptin reduces it.
• Genetics alone cannot explain why rates of overweight and
obesity are rising all over the world among all social classes,
ethnicities, and ages. The major environmental reasons are
(1) the increased abundance of inexpensive fast food and pro-
cessed food, because humans have a genetic disposition to gain
weight when rich food is plentiful; (2) the increased consump-
tion of high-calorie sugared sodas; (3) increased portion sizes;
and (4) the availability of highly varied foods.
• when genetic predispositions clash with cultural standards,
physical and mental problems can result. In cultures that foster
overeating and regard overweight as a sign of attractiveness and
health, obesity is acceptable. In cultures that foster unrealisti-
cally thin bodies, eating disorders increase, especially bulimia
nervosa, binge-eating disorder, and anorexia nervosa, as do
unhealthy attitudes toward food and weight. Bulimia and an-
orexia are more common in white women than in men, but rates
of body image problems and eating disorders among men are
increasing.The Social Animal: Motives to Love
• All human beings have a need for attachment and love.
Psychologists distinguish passionate (“romantic”) love from
companionate love. Biologically oriented researchers believe
that the neurological origins of passionate love begin in the
baby’s attachment to the mother. Various brain chemicals and
hormones, including vasopressin and oxytocin, are associ-
ated with bonding and trust; endorphins and dopamine create
the rushes of pleasure and reward associated with romantic
passion.
• Two strong predictors of whom people will love are proximity and
similarity. Once in love, people form different kinds of attach-
ments. Attachment theory views adult love relationships, like
those of infants, as being secure, avoidant, or anxious. People’s
attachment styles tend to be stable from childhood to adulthood
and affect their close relationships.
• Men and women are equally likely to feel love and need attach-
ment, but they differ, on average, in how they express feelings of
love and how they define intimacy. A couple’s attitudes, values,
and perception that the relationship is fair and balanced are bet-
ter predictors of long-term love than are genes or hormones.Summary
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