G-9 GloSSARy
unconditioned response (UR) The classical-conditioning term for a
response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus (US) The classical-conditioning term for a stim-
ulus that already elicits a certain response without additional learning.
validity The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure.
validity effect The tendency of people to believe that a statement is true
or valid simply because it has been repeated many times.
variables Characteristics of behavior or experience that can be measured
or described by a numeric scale.
volunteer bias A shortcoming of findings derived from a sample of volun-
teers instead of a representative sample; the volunteers may differ from
those who did not volunteer.
vulnerability-stress models Approaches that emphasize how individual
vulnerabilities (e.g., in genes or personality traits) interact with external
stresses or circumstances to produce mental disorders.
working memory In many models of memory, a cognitively complex form
of short-term memory; it involves active mental processes that control
retrieval of information from long-term memory and interpret that infor-
mation appropriately for a given task.
z-score (standard score) A number that indicates how far a given raw
score is above or below the mean, using the standard deviation of the
distribution as the unit of measurement.trait A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of
behaving, thinking, or feeling.
tranquilizers Drugs commonly but often inappropriately prescribed for
patients who complain of unhappiness, anxiety, or worry.
transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) A technique that applies a
small electric current to stimulate or suppress activity in parts of the cor-
tex; it enables researchers to identify the functions of a particular area.
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) A method of stimulating brain
cells, using a powerful magnetic field produced by a wire coil placed on a
person’s head; it can be used by researchers to temporarily disrupt neural
circuits during specific tasks and is also being used therapeutically.
transference In psychodynamic therapies, a critical process in which the
client transfers unconscious emotions or reactions, such as emotional
feelings about his or her parents, onto the therapist.
triarchic [try-ARE-kick] theory of intelligence A theory of intelligence
that emphasizes analytic, creative, and practical abilities.
trichromatic theory A theory of color perception that proposes three
mechanisms in the visual system, each sensitive to a certain range of
wavelengths; their interaction is assumed to produce all the different
experiences of hue.
unconditional positive regard To Carl Rogers, love or support given to
another person with no conditions attached.