User requirements and preferences for ITS Chapter | 4 55activity theory (Engeström 1987), examine the user historical activity informa-
tion in order to extract activity patterns that define the user context.
4.7 Activity theory
4.7.1 Brief review of activity theory
The philosophical framework of activity theory examines different forms of
human actions as development progresses that combine individual and social
aspects (Kuutti, 1996). The “activity” is the minimal meaningful action that
individual and/or collective actors, the “subjects,” perform in order to achieve
their goals. This interaction happens for a purpose, which corresponds to a
fundamental need of an individual or a group. The development according to
activity theory is a continuous process in which subjects (individuals or sub-
groups) perform activities (e.g., use methods or procedures, develop machines,
and organize work) that transform objects into outcomes as illustrated in
Fig. 4.1. The production of outcome motivates subjects to perform more activi-
ties (Kuutti, 1996) and this may create contradictions. Resolving contradictions
helps development to go to the next stage, where new contradictions are created,
thus creating an iterative development process.
Handling the relationship between objects and subjects of an activity
requires a mediating tool or instrument. For example, rules are the mediating
tool for the social relationship between a subject and its community. The “divi-
sion of labor” mediates the relationship between the object and its community
and has the allocation of tasks and responsibilities to the various roles that the
subjects undertake.
As depicted in Fig. 4.2, the activities may correspond to motive, goal, and
conditions and can be achieved through actions, which are further divided
into operations. Actions may contribute to multiple activities and operations
to multiple actions, respectively. Activities can be individual or cooperative
FIGURE 4.1 The basic activity structure.