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IMAGES
tine 11 towns in Lombardy, as hundreds tested positive for
the virus, has seen a run on pasta and fresh vegetables.
The prejudice is nothing new. In 1889, British medical
experts blamed the ‘Russian influenza’ pandemic (so called
because the first outbreak was observed in St Petersburg)
on the flooding of the Yangtze river the previous year and
the thousands of Chinese victims whose bodies had been
left to rot in the sun. In fact, the pandemic almost certainly
originated in Bukhara, a tsarist-controlled Muslim trading
post lying on the Silk Road in present-day Uzbekistan.
The 14th-century Black Death prompted similar libels
against Jews, who were accused of poisoning the wells used
by Christians (by contrast, in Muslim countries, Jews were
rarely singled out for blame). In the 1980s, the Aids crisis
saw the slur that the spread of HIV, a blood-borne viral
infection, was due to the sexual appetites of homosexual
men – hence the epithet ‘the gay plague’, used by many US
news anchors. Conversely in Africa, where Aids was seen
as a disease that affected both men and women regardless
of their sexual orientations, President Mbeki of South
Africa denied the connection between HIV and Aids,
while others claimed the virus had been released from a
US biowarfare facility in a deliberate effort to “kill blacks”.
The Ebola epidemic that swept west Africa in 2014–
saw similar conspiracy theories about biowarfare experi-
mentation, while back in 1918 several US newspapers blamed
the Spanish flu on German U-boats in the north Atlantic
(in fact, the pandemic originated in neither Spain nor
Germany, but was probably incubated in US Army camps
in the southern United States, from where it was intro-
duced to northern Europe via American troop transports).
Chinese researchers recently suggested that COVID-
may have originated in a laboratory close to the Wuhan
seafood market where scientists were studying bats known
to harbour wild coronaviruses. The evidence was entirely
circumstantial and dismissed by other experts who, based
on genetic analysis of COVID-19 and related bat viruses,concluded it was almost certainly the result of natural
selection in an animal or human host. But by then the
conspiracy theory was already halfway round the world.
In 1924, the quarantining of the Mexican quarter
sparked similar rumours and theories about the ‘squalid’
living conditions and ‘dirty habits’ of Latinos, but though
the LA papers refused to use the P-word, east coast news-
papers were not so reticent, with both The Washington Post
and The New York Times declaring the city was in the grip
of an outbreak of “pneumonic plague”. As a result, federal
authorities rushed plague serum to the hospital at the
centre of the outbreak (the rudimentary serum probably
made little difference, but the symbolism was immense).
In all, 40 people would die in the two-week outbreak,
nearly all of them Latinos, and after the quarantine was
lifted, extermination squads were sent into the Mexican
quarter to blitz rooms and basements where plague-
carrying rats had set up home. In fact, it is now thought,
the plague bacillus had been introduced to the Mexican
quarter by Californian ground squirrels who, following
the introduction of plague to San Francisco in 1900, had
become an important domestic reservoir of the disease.
It is too early to say what animal may be responsible for
the COVID-19 outbreak – candidates include bats, snakes
and civet cats. But with more than 75,000 cases and
2,000 deaths in China (as we went to press), and introduc-
tions reported in 27 countries, the epidemic has already
surpassed the 2003 SARS outbreak, which was also due to
a coronavirus, and there are fears that
travellers who left Wuhan before thePanic stations
Citizens in Guangzhou,
China wear face masks to
protect themselves against
the coronavirus outbreak
in January – though
many experts question
their utility outside
clinical settingslockdown may yet spark a true global
pandemic. Hopefully, that won’t
happen, but the key historical lesson
is that transparency is the best
policy, and it is far better to lock
the stable door before the horse
has bolted.Mark Honigsbaum
is a medical historian
and author of The
Pandemic Century: One Hundred Years of
Panic, Hysteria and Hubris (Hurst, 2019)
GETTY
IMAGES
tine 11 townsinLombardy,ashundredstestedpositivefor
thevirus,hasseena runonpastaandfreshvegetables.
Theprejudiceis nothingnew.In1889,Britishmedical
expertsblamedthe‘Russianinfluenza’pandemic(socalled
becausethefirstoutbreakwasobservedinStPetersburg)
onthefloodingoftheYangtzeriverthepreviousyearand
thethousandsofChinesevictimswhosebodieshadbeen
lefttorotinthesun.Infact,thepandemicalmostcertainly
originatedinBukhara,a tsarist-controlledMuslimtrading
postlyingontheSilkRoadinpresent-dayUzbekistan.
The14th-centuryBlackDeathpromptedsimilarlibels
againstJews,whowereaccusedofpoisoningthewellsused
byChristians(bycontrast,inMuslimcountries,Jewswere
rarelysingledoutforblame).Inthe1980s,theAidscrisis
sawtheslurthatthespreadofHIV,a blood-borneviral
infection,wasduetothesexualappetitesofhomosexual
men– hencetheepithet‘thegayplague’,usedbymanyUS
newsanchors.ConverselyinAfrica,whereAidswasseen
asa diseasethataffectedbothmenandwomenregardless
oftheirsexualorientations,PresidentMbekiofSouth
AfricadeniedtheconnectionbetweenHIVandAids,
whileothersclaimedthevirushadbeenreleasedfroma
USbiowarfarefacilityina deliberateeffortto“killblacks”.
TheEbolaepidemicthatsweptwestAfricain2014–
sawsimilarconspiracytheoriesaboutbiowarfareexperi-
mentation,whilebackin 1918 severalUSnewspapersblamed
theSpanishfluonGermanU-boatsinthenorthAtlantic
(infact,thepandemicoriginatedinneitherSpainnor
Germany,butwasprobablyincubatedinUSArmycamps
inthesouthernUnitedStates,fromwhereit wasintro-
ducedtonorthernEuropeviaAmericantrooptransports).
ChineseresearchersrecentlysuggestedthatCOVID-
mayhaveoriginatedina laboratoryclosetotheWuhan
seafoodmarketwherescientistswerestudyingbatsknown
toharbourwildcoronaviruses.Theevidencewasentirely
circumstantialanddismissedbyotherexpertswho,based
on genetic analysis of COVID-19 and related bat viruses,concludedit wasalmostcertainlytheresultofnatural
selectioninananimalorhumanhost.Butbythenthe
conspiracytheorywasalreadyhalfwayroundtheworld.
In1924,thequarantiningoftheMexicanquarter
sparkedsimilarrumoursandtheoriesaboutthe‘squalid’
livingconditionsand‘dirtyhabits’ofLatinos,butthough
theLApapersrefusedtousetheP-word,eastcoastnews-
paperswerenotsoreticent,withbothTheWashingtonPost
andTheNewYorkTimesdeclaringthecitywasinthegrip
ofanoutbreakof“pneumonicplague”.Asa result,federal
authoritiesrushedplagueserumtothehospitalatthe
centreoftheoutbreak(therudimentaryserumprobably
madelittledifference,butthesymbolismwasimmense).
Inall, 40 peoplewoulddieinthetwo-weekoutbreak,
nearlyallofthemLatinos,andafterthequarantinewas
lifted,exterminationsquadsweresentintotheMexican
quartertoblitzroomsandbasementswhereplague-
carryingratshadsetuphome.Infact,it is nowthought,
theplaguebacillushadbeenintroducedtotheMexican
quarterbyCaliforniangroundsquirrelswho,following
theintroductionofplaguetoSanFranciscoin1900,had
becomeanimportantdomesticreservoirofthedisease.
It is tooearlytosaywhatanimalmayberesponsiblefor
theCOVID-19outbreak– candidatesincludebats,snakes
andcivetcats.Butwithmorethan75,000casesand
2,000deathsinChina(aswewenttopress),andintroduc-
tionsreportedin 27 countries,theepidemichasalready
surpassedthe 2003 SARSoutbreak,which was also due to
a coronavirus,andtherearefearsthat
travellerswholeftWuhanbeforethePanicstations
Citizensin Guangzhou,
Chinawearfacemasksto
protectthemselvesagainst
thecoronavirusoutbreak
in January– though
manyexpertsquestion
theirutilityoutside
clinical settingslockdownmayyetsparka trueglobal
pandemic.Hopefully,thatwon’t
happen,butthekeyhistoricallesson
is thattransparencyis thebest
policy,andit is farbettertolock
thestabledoorbefore the horse
has bolted.MarkHonigsbaum
isa medicalhistorian
andauthorofThe
PandemicCentury:OneHundredYearsof
Panic, Hysteria and Hubris (Hurst, 2019)