604 GLOSSARYbehaviours over which people have incomplete volitional
control.
Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA) : an extension of the
Fishbein model. The model provides a link between attitude
and behavioural intention. The latter is determined not only
by attitudes, but also by the subjective norm (the influence of
relevant others).
Think–feel dimension : the extent to which a decision is made
on a cognitive or an affective basis.
Top-of-mind brand awareness (TOMA) : the percentage of
people for which a brand of a specific product category is the
first one that comes to mind.
Top topicals : newspaper ads referring to recent events.
Total reach of a medium vehicle : the number or percentage
of people who are expected to be exposed to the advertiser’s
message in that medium vehicle during a specified period.
Tracking study : advertising effectiveness study in which
comparable (random) samples of consumers are asked a
standardised set of questions at regular intervals. As a result,
the position of a brand and competing products can be
tracked over time, and effects of subsequent campaigns can
be assessed.
Trade advertising : advertising aimed at a company that buys
products to resell them.
Trade fair : exhibitions and trade shows open to people
working in a certain field of activity or industry. It is a place
where manufacturers and retailers of a certain product
category or sector meet each other to talk about trade, to
present and demonstrate their products and services, to
exchange ideas and network, and actually to buy and sell
products.
Trade mart : a hybrid kind of exhibition, i.e. half-exhibition,
half-display, with a high frequency. Participants rent a
permanent stand and aim to sell. Participants in trade marts
have samples permanently on display.
Trade promotions : sales promotions by manufacturers to
persuade channel members to include the product in their
mix, to give it appropriate shelf space and to assist in
promoting the product to the end-consumer.
Trailer test (or coupon-stimulated purchasing test) :
respondents are randomly recruited in an experimental and a
control group. The experimental group is exposed to a new
advertisement, while the control group is not. After shopping,
the items purchased by the two groups are compared.
Transaction-based sponsorship : cause-related marketing or
point-of-purchase politics: a type of sponsorship in which the
company invests a pre-specified amount of money in a ‘good
cause’ every time a consumer buys one of the company’s
products.
Transformational buying motives : positive buying
motivations, such as sensory gratification, social approval
or intellectual stimulation.
TV test : ethical rule of conduct which implies that a manager
should always ask if he or she would feel comfortable
explaining his or her action on TV to the general public.
Twitter : a micro-blog and at the same time a free social
network service. Twitter enables users to send and read users’updates known as tweets. These are text-based posts of a
maximum of 140 characters that are displayed on the user’s
profile page and delivered to other users (called followers)
who subscribe to them.
Two-factor model : an inverted-U relationship exists between
the level of exposure to an advertising campaign, on the one
hand, and advertising effectiveness (cognitive responses,
attitudes, purchase), on the other. Wear-in and wear-out
effects explain the nature of this relationship.
Unaided brand awareness : the percentage of consumers that
can name a brand in a certain product category.
Uncertainty avoidance culture : the extent to which people
feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity and have
a need for structure and formal rules in their lives.
Underpositioning : a company fails to make a clear
differentiation with competitors.
Unfair marketing communications : acts or practices that
cause or are likely to cause substantial injury to consumers,
which are not reasonably avoidable by consumers themselves
and not outweighed by countervailing benefits to consumers
or competition. They may go beyond questions of fact and
relate merely to public values, e.g. offend public policy as it
has been established by statutes, are immoral, unethical,
oppressive or unscrupulous, or cause substantial injury to
consumers, competitors or other business.
Unique selling proposition (USP) : a functional benefit used
in marketing communications; usually functional superiority
in the sense that the brand offers the best quality, the best
service, the lowest price, the most advanced technology.
Useful reach of a medium vehicle : the number or percentage
of people from the target group of a campaign who are
expected to be exposed to the advertiser’s message in that
medium vehicle during a specified period.
Useful score : advertising processing measure in which the
percentage of the consumer sample that both recognised
the ad and attributed it correctly to the brand advertised is
measured.
Value marketing : a strategy in which a company links its
activities to a philosophy of general societal interest. The
company positions itself on the basis of a value system
that is often not product-related.
Vertical trade fairs : different industries present their goods
and services to target groups belonging to one single field of
activity.
Video-on-Demand (VoD) : services include the online retail
and rental of audio-visual works, primarily feature films,
audio-visual fiction, documentaries, educational programmes,
cartoons, etc.
Viral marketing : a set of techniques that is used to spur
brand users and lovers, game participants or advocate
consumers among the target group to promote their favourite
brand to friends and relatives. They are put to work to spread
the word about the brand or product by using e-mail, SMS,
‘tell or send to a friend’ buttons or via different social media
sites as Facebook, Google+, YouTube, review sites and
influential blogs.
Virtual game worlds : games that require their users to
behave according to strict rules in the context of a massivelyZ01_PELS3221_05_SE_GLOS.indd 604Z01_PELS3221_05_SE_GLOS.indd 604 3/6/13 4:01 PM3/6/13 4:01 PM