Marketing Communications

BRAND EQUITY 57

Finally, brand feelings or consumers’ emotional responses to the brand are an important

element of brand equity. For example, warmth, fun, excitement, self-respect, social approval

and security are considered as important types of brand-building feelings.^66 Th ese feelings

may have become associated to the brand by means of its marketing communications pro-

gramme or the experiences the consumer had with the brand. Th ey may also stem from the

attributes or benefi ts consumers associate with the brand. Th e relation between attributes and

consumers’ end-values/feelings can be revealed by the ‘means–end chain’. Th e structure of the

‘ladder’ of meanings that a brand can deliver is oft en presented as a ‘means–end chain’, with

six levels (associations) ( Table 2.4 ).^67 First of all, a brand suggests a number of both concrete

and abstract attributes. Concrete attributes can be the Absolut Vodka bottle or the lubricating

strip on a Gillette razor. Abstract attributes can be the level of technology in a Saab car or the

good taste of Danone yoghurt. Th ese attributes lead to functional and psycho-social benefi ts.

A functional benefi t of Elsève hairspray is that you avoid sticky hair. Th e psycho-social bene-

fi t of Nespresso coff ee may be that guests feel happy and have more fun drinking it. Finally,

brands are also associated with instrumental and end-values. Using Dolce and Gabbana

perfume may enable you to impress others (instrumental values), leading to a higher level of

self-esteem (end-value). Th e concept of means–end chains is derived from the fact that the

attributes (means) lead to benefi ts, which eventually lead to values (ends). For instance,

Dorito crisps are made of corn and have a special fl avour; as a result, they are tasty and guests

have more fun and enjoy visiting you, which makes you a good host, leading to the desired

end-value of higher self-esteem. Th e fi nal goal of consumption and brand choice is to satisfy

end-value needs.

In assessing brand association structures, not only should the evoked associations be

measured, but also their desirability, strength and uniqueness,^68 i.e. the extent to which cus-

tomers value the associations they make, and the extent to which the brand is perceived to be

the only one that evokes that particular set of associations.

Other assets also determine brand equity, such as the number of stores carrying the brand,

the percentage of people that have easy access to the brand, shelf space, patents and trade-

marks, quality of staff , labels, etc.

Th e fi rst four factors of brand equity do not imply any real behaviour on the part of the

consumer. Evidently, real brand strength will be translated into consumers buying the brand

and being loyal to it. Behind every powerful brand stands a group of loyal consumers. In fact,

the real company asset is brand loyalty , not the brand itself.^69 Diff erent levels of loyalty can

be distinguished ( Figure 2.5 ). Evidently, a strong brand implies that as many customers as

Table 2.4 Means–end chains and brand association structures

Concrete

attributes

Abstract

attributes

Functional

benefits

Psycho-

social

benefits

Instrumental

values

End-values

Bacardi

Breezer

Less alcohol Filling I drink less

alcohol

I avoid the

negatives

of alcohol

I am more

able to

socialise and

can really

enjoy my friends

I get the

feeling I

belong to

the group

50 cl cola

can

Too much

to drink

Cola gets

warm

I cannot

drink it all

I throw it

away

I am wasting

money

I feel

irresponsible

Spicy

Doritos

Flavour Strong

taste

I eat less I don’t get

fat

I maintain a good

figure

I feel good

about myself

Source : Based on Reynolds, T.J. and Gutman, J. (2001), ‘Laddering Theory, Method, Analysis, and Interpretation’, in Reynolds, T.J. and Olson, J.C. (eds),

Understanding Consumer Decision Making: The Means-End Approach to Marketing and Advertising Strategy , Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 25–62.

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