Marketing Communications

76 CHAPTER 3 HOW MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS WORK

Notwithstanding the important contribution of the classical hierarchy models, several

shortcomings have been formulated. A major critique is that empirical support for the fact

that consumers go through each stage is still lacking. Significant relations have been observed

between ad characteristics and recall, and between ad characteristics and attitudes and

purchase intentions, but not between recall and attitudes. This leads to the conclusion that,

empirically, no hierarchy of cognitive, affective and conative effects can be observed.^7

Furthermore, hierarchy models do not allow interactions between the different stages, which

is very unlikely. Purchase will lead to experience, which will have an important impact

on beliefs and attitudes, for example. Therefore, to base marketing communications on

hierarchy-of-effects models may not be the most effective or relevant strategy.

Attitude formation and change

Since the 1980s, attitudes have received more and more attention. An attitude is as a person’s

overall evaluation of an object, a product, a person, an organisation, an ad, etc. In this view,

an attitude towards a particular brand (Ab) can be considered as a measure of how much a

person likes or dislikes the brand, or of the extent to which he or she holds a favourable or

unfavourable view of it. The reason for this interest in, for example, brand attitudes is the

belief that the more favourable brand attitudes are, the more likely a purchase of the brand

becomes. Although brand attitudes are relatively stable, they can be changed over time. So,

the ultimate challenge for marketing communications is to change attitudes in favour of the

company’s brand.

Attitudes play an important role in hierarchy-of-effects models too, but in these models

they are primarily defined as affective reactions in a hierarchical setting. In fact, an attitude

can be assumed to consist of three components (Figure 3.2).^8 The cognitive component

reflects knowledge, beliefs and evaluations of the object; the affective component represents

Figure 3.2 Attitude components

with bright red asses, didn’t I?’ Before the ads were on air for a week, the Singapore authorities pulled them out.

Therefore, Ogilvy & Mather started using non-traditional media. Buses were painted with the message ‘Please don’t

drink and drive. You’re not quite ready to meet me yet’. Subway waiting places were plastered with the message

‘I’m here. God’, and SMS was used to spread text messages such as: ‘ Thank me. It’s Friday. God’; ‘Even I rested on

the 7th day. Enjoy. God’; and ‘Are you coming over to my place later?’ (on Sundays). The campaign received incred-

ible attention both in the traditional media and on the Internet. The campaign was awarded two gold lions at the

Cannes Advertising Festival and achieved a cult status in no time.^6

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