ters. Lorenzo VALLA, who went so far as to emend the Vul-
gate itself, exposed the socalled Donation of Constantine,
purportedly a fourth-century document, as a later me-
dieval forgery on historical and linguistic grounds. Angelo
POLITIAN, probably the first Italian to be equally at home
in Latin and Greek, saw his way through the welter of hu-
manist copies to establish principles about the earliest re-
coverable stage of a textual tradition that were not to be
superseded for three centuries.
Coincident with the proliferation of ancient texts was
the invention of PRINTING. Most of the principal classical
Latin authors had found their way into print by the end of
the 15th century. Typographical difficulties held up the
printing of Greek texts, but by the time of his death in
1515 Aldus MANUTIUShad overseen the first printing of
most of the major authors. The survival of ancient litera-
ture was finally ensured, but the price was the quality of
the text. In their haste to publish printed versions the
early printers had often seized the first manuscript that
came to hand, giving it at best a veneer of critical atten-
tion. For the next 300 years the activity of textual critics
was to be dominated by the need to unpick the tangled
web created by these first editions.
See also: ANTIQUARIANISM; GREEK STUDIES; LATIN
STUDIES; MANUSCRIPTS
Crivelli, Carlo (c. 1435–c. 1495) Italian painter
Born in Venice, Crivelli probably trained in the VIVARINI
FAMILYworkshop and was later influenced by the painters
of Padua, including SCHIAVONE and MANTEGNA. After
being imprisoned for adultery Crivelli left Venice and set-
tled in Ascoli Piceno in the Marches (1468), developing a
contemplative and highly ornamental style and concen-
trating upon executing religious scenes. Major paintings
include the Madonna della Passione (c. 1457; Museo di
Castelvecchio, Verona), a Pietà (1485; Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston), and the Madonna della Candellata (c. 1490;
Brera, Milan), but he is best known for the Annunciation
(1486; National Gallery, London), an exotic and eccentric
masterpiece.
Croce, Giovanni (c. 1557–1609) Italian composer
A native of Chioggia, near Venice, and pupil of Gioseffo
ZARLINO, Croce sang in the choir of St. Mark’s as a boy. He
took holy orders before 1585 and was employed for much
of his life at the church of Sta. Maria Formosa. In 1603 he
became maestro di cappella at St. Mark’s. Croce wrote in an
essentially conservative style; his madrigals and can-
zonettes are lightly textured with attractive melodies, and
his sacred compositions are generally small-scale, with
simple melodies and straightforward harmonies. The
posthumously published Sacre cantilene concertate (1610)
shows the adoption of the more modern concertato style.
Croce’s main influence outside Italy was as a madrigalist,
and his contribution to Il trionfo di Dori (1592) probably
inspired MORLEYto compile The Triumphs of Oriana.Crocus, Cornelius (c. 1500–1550) Dutch educationist
and playwright
Crocus was born in Amsterdam and after studying at Lou-
vain was ordained a priest. He then became (1528) head-
master in Amsterdam, a post which he held until the year
before his death, when he resigned it in order to travel on
foot to Rome, where he was received by IGNATIUS LOYOLA
into the Jesuit Order. He engaged in religious controversy
against LUTHERand the ANABAPTISTS, wrote a popular text-
book to assist children to form a correct Latin style
(1536), and composed several Latin dramas for perfor-
mance in schools. Of these the Coemedia sacra Joseph
(1535) was the most successful, achieving over 20 edi-
tions and being imitated as far afield as Poland (see REJ,
MIKOŁAJ).Croll, Oswald (c. 1560–1609) German chemist and
physician
The son of the mayor of Wetter, near Marburg, Croll stud-
ied at a number of German universities, then spent several
years traveling throughout Europe. Thereafter he prac-
ticed medicine and in about 1602 entered the service of
Prince Christian of Anhalt-Bernberg. He is also reported to
have served subsequently as a councilor to Emperor
RUDOLF II. As a scientist Croll is best known for his Ba-
silica chymica (Royal Chemistry; 1609), a highly influen-
tial text which did much to spread the ideas of PARACELSUS
throughout Europe. The work also contained his De sig-
naturis, an account of the widely held doctrine of SIGNA-
TURES.Cromwell, Thomas (c. 1485–1540) English statesman
The son of a blacksmith at Putney, near London,
Cromwell fought for the French in Italy before qualifying
as a lawyer. In 1514 Thomas WOLSEYappointed him col-
lector of the see of York’s revenues. Cromwell entered par-
liament in 1523 and was made a privy councilor in 1531.
As HENRY VIII’s most trusted servant in the 1530s,
Cromwell became chancellor of the exchequer (1533),
lord privy seal (1536), lord high chamberlain (1539), and
earl of Essex (1540). From 1535, as Henry’s vicar-general,
Cromwell carried out the English Reformation, dissolving
the monasteries and confiscating their property (1536–
39). He arranged the king’s fourth marriage to Anne of
Cleves, but when the marriage failed Cromwell fell from
favor and was executed.Cronaca, Simone, Il (Simone del Pollaiuolo)
(1457–1508) Italian architect
Cronaca was born in Florence and mainly worked there,
apart from a period in Rome (1475–85), where he gained
an understanding of classical architecture. In 1495 he11228 8 CCrriivveellllii,, CCaarrlloo