naire (1694) in four volumes originally arranged words by
families (roots) rather than alphabetically and was (and
remains) concerned with establishing acceptable literary
and polite usage rather than describing the language in de-
tail. Subsequent editions, of which there have been eight,
have been arranged alphabetically. Other noteworthy early
lexicographical works are Robert Estienne’s Dictionnaire
françois-latin (1539), Jean Nicot’s Trésor de la langue
françoise (1606), Gilles Ménage’s Dictionnaire étymologique
(1650), and César-Pierre Richelet’s Dictionnaire françois
(1680).
Frescobaldi, Girolamo (1583–1643) Italian composer
Frescobaldi was born into an influential Ferrarese family
and his father was also a musician. He studied music with
the court organist LUZZASCHI, and his first post was as or-
ganist at the church of Sta. Maria in Trastevere, Rome
(1607). In that year he visited the Low Countries with
Guido Bentivoglio, his patron, and published his first
work, a collection of five-part madrigals, in Antwerp. In
1608 he was appointed organist of the Cappella Giulia at
St. Peter’s in Rome and in the same year he published a set
of 12 open-score fantasias. Apart from a period as court
organist for the Medici in Florence (1628–34), during
which he published two books of songs, the Arie musicale
(1630), he remained in Rome until his death.
Frescobaldi was famous in his lifetime as a virtuoso
performer on the organ, whose style of playing was inno-
vative. The prefaces to his collections contain information
on the interpretation of baroque music and indicate that
his playing technique involved frequent changes of pace.
He is now most famous for his compositions of instru-
mental works for keyboard and his contribution to the de-
velopment of the trio sonata, the major form of chamber
music until it was superseded by the string quartet. In
1615 he published his most famous work, his first book of
toccatas, which was reprinted five times with numerous
revisions and additions. The final and most substantial re-
vision was published as Toccate d’intavolature cimbalo e
organo (1637).
Frescobaldi’s international reputation made him a
much sought-after teacher, and among his pupils were
Johann Jakob Froberger (1616–67). His Fiori musicali
(Musical flowers;1635), which consists largely of three
organ masses, was later famously copied out by the young
J. S. Bach. He was an innovative and influential figure in
early Italian baroque music who adapted and synthesized
older musical forms and invested them with new and
complex harmonies and rhythms. A contemporary of the
Dutch composer SWEELINCK, Frescobaldi is one of the
most important composers in the history of keyboard
music and, through the work of his pupils, he had a strong
influence on the German baroque school of the following
century.
frescoes Wall paintings executed upon plaster, most no-
tably by Italian artists during the 16th century. The
medium of fresco (Italian “fresh”) was originally devel-
oped in the ancient world before being adopted by artists
of the Renaissance in the decoration of public buildings,
churches, and private houses. In the most permanent
form, buon fresco, the wall is first plastered and then the
basic cartoon is transferred to this surface. Next, an area
sufficient for one day’s work is coated with plaster in a
stage known as the intonaco. Dry powder pigment is
mixed with water or lime-water and then painted onto the
still damp plaster with which it reacts so that the paint be-
comes part of the actual wall as opposed to a superficial
layer. In a more primitive form of fresco, fresco secco, the
pigment is applied to dry plaster and is consequently more
likely to flake off, as happened notoriously in the case of
Leonardo da Vinci’s LAST SUPPERin Milan.
Exponents of fresco painting in the early Renaissance
included GIOTTOin Padua and Florence, MASACCIOin Flo-
rence, and PIERO DELLA FRANCESCAin Arezzo and Rimini.
It reached its height, however, in the 16th century under
the direction of RAPHAEL, best known for his decorations
in the Stanze of the Vatican, and MICHELANGELO, whose
ceiling and Last Judgment for the SISTINE CHAPELin Rome
provided an inspiration for many subsequent fresco
artists. Other leading Renaissance artists in this medium,
all of whom worked with numerous assistants and com-
bined with other painters on certain cycles, included
ROSSO FIORENTINO, ANDREA DEL SARTO, PONTORMO, VASARI,
BRONZINO, BECCAFUMI, GIULIO ROMANO, CORREGGIO, and
Paolo VERONESE.
Further reading: Eve Borsook, The Mural Painters of
Tuscany: from Cimabue to Andrea del Sarto (1960; 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press and New York: Oxford
University Press, 1980).Frisius, Gemma See GEMMA FRISIUSFroben, Johann (1460–1527) Swiss scholar and printer
Froben was born at Hammelburg, Bavaria, and after study-
ing in Basle started printing there in 1491, in partnership
with Johannes AMERBACHand mostly in Greek, Latin, or
Hebrew. The scholars he employed as editors included his
friend ERASMUS, whose Greek New Testament (1516) he
printed, as well as many of his other works. Among
Froben’s authors was Martin LUTHER, at least until his dis-
agreement with Erasmus. Well-printed scholarly texts
from Froben, among them St. Jerome in nine volumes
(1516) were distributed all over Europe. He sold type as
well as books, once he had adopted roman faces, and in-
troduced the use of italics for quotations. His situation in
Basle allowed him to employ the HOLBEINS, who con-
tributed initials, borders, and other decorations to his
books after 1516. His son Hieronymus (1501–65) and
grandson Ambrosius (1537–95) continued his work.FFrroobbeenn,, JJoohhaannnn 1 19955