tions known from the 16th century, proved to be one of
the most successful mathematical textbooks of the period.
Frisius was also known as a maker of globes, ASTROLABES,
and other mathematical and astronomical instruments.
His De radio astronomico et geometrico liber (1557) gave
details of an improved cross-staff for astronomical and
navigational measurements.
Geneva (French Genève, German Genf, Italian Ginevra)
A Swiss city in the Rhône valley on the southwest corner
of Lake Geneva. Occupied from the Stone Age, the site
was first a Celtic city, then Roman, becoming the seat of a
bishoric (379) and the domain of the hereditary counts of
Geneva (1034–1401). After the family of the counts died
out, Geneva owed a triple allegiance to its bishop-prince,
its municipal government, and Savoy. During the 15th
century the great trade fairs brought expansion and pros-
perity to the city, while its citizens resisted not only the in-
creasing power of the bishop but also the claims of the
dukes of Savoy to control its destiny.
In 1535 Guillaume FARELpersuaded the city to expel
the bishop and his clergy and to adopt the reformed faith.
It was Farel who invited John CALVINto settle in Geneva,
and except for a brief period when the opposition regained
power Calvin spent the rest of his life in the city
(1536–38; 1541–64). Under Calvin’s guidance Geneva be-
came a virtual theocracy—the “Protestant Rome”; it wel-
comed Protestant refugees from all over Europe, it
published Calvinist tracts, and it trained theologians at its
academy (see GENEVAN ACADEMY) and university to carry
the Calvinist faith from Geneva to England, Germany, the
Netherlands, Scandinavia, Scotland, and eventually to
America. The refugees also played an important part in the
development of Geneva’s prosperous banking and watch-
making activities in the 16th century.
Late in the 16th century Geneva had to fend off ag-
gression from Savoy; after the failure of the duke of Savoy’s
surprise attack (1602) Geneva’s independence was guar-
anteed by the treaty of St.-Julien (1603). Notable build-
ings that have survived from the Renaissance period
include St. Peter’s cathedral and the town hall.
Genevan Academy The famous school in Geneva
founded by John CALVINin June 1559 and completed in
1564; it proved of considerable importance to the spread
of Calvinism. Calvin’s main intention was that his acad-
emy would prepare ministers to preach the gospel. Its out-
standing academic reputation and brilliant teachers,
who included BEZA, the first rector, and Jacob Arminius
(1560–1609; see ARMINIANISM), attracted students from all
over Europe. Divided into two parts, primary and sec-
ondary, the academy awarded no degrees, merely certifi-
cates of attendance. At Calvin’s death it numbered 1500
students.
Genga, Girolamo (1472–1551) Italian painter
Genga was born and worked for much of his life in
Urbino. He collaborated with his master Luca SIGNORELLI
before going with PERUGINOto Florence (1502), where he
studied perspective. Back in Urbino he was both painter
and architect, completing the top story of the ducal palace
there in about 1536. He also restored and decorated the
Villa Imperiale near Pesaro for the duke of Urbino, en-
dowing it with handsome wall paintings, fine stuccoed
ceilings, and majolica-tiled floors.Gennadius (George Scholarius) (c. 1400–c. 1468) Greek
scholar and theologian
Perhaps born in Constantinople (the details of his early
life are obscure), he came to Italy in 1438 as counselor to
Emperor John Palaeologus at the Council of FLORENCE.
Here he wrote works attacking PLETHONon both theolog-
ical and philosophical grounds. On the schism between
Eastern and Western Churches, Scholarius advocated
compromise and drew up a form of agreement ambiguous
enough to be accepted by both, but on his return to
Greece, he completely changed his position and opposed
the union. In 1448 he became a monk and took the name
Gennadius. Mehmet II made him patriarch of Constan-
tinople (1453) and he composed an exposition of Christ-
ian belief for the sultan’s use, but he found the strain of
being patriarch of a Muslim city too much and retired to
Serres in Macedonia where he died. In addition to his the-
ological works on such subjects as PREDESTINATION, Gen-
nadius, who was a competent Latinist, made translations
of Thomas Aquinas’s works and wrote commentaries on
them.Genoa A northwest Italian city state and port on the Lig-
urian Sea. A Roman settlement (third century BCE), Genoa
was frequently invaded by Arabs and Germans after the
fall of Rome. By the 12th century the city had established
a republic that reached the peak of its power under the
Doria and Spinola families late in the 13th century. Politi-
cal rivalries and foreign intervention brought years of tur-
moil to Genoa. The Doria and other leading noble families
were expelled by Simone BOCCANEGRA(1339), but he and
his successors were unable to consolidate their authority.
At various times Genoa was ruled by Savoy, France, and
Milan. It was conquered by France (1499) and sacked by
Spain (1522) during the Wars of ITALY. In 1528 Andrea
DORIAachieved a measure of political stability by expelling
the French and setting up an oligarchic republic with the
support of Emperor CHARLES V. The civil war (1573–76)
between the old and the new aristocracy was ended by the
intervention of Spain and the papacy and by the new con-
stitutional settlement which abolished the distinctions be-
tween the old and the new nobility.
At the beginning of the Renaissance period Genoa
was a major Mediterranean trading power with outposts220066 GGeenneevvaa