commission from the states general resulted in De antiqui-
tate reipublicae Bataviae (1610), justifying the revolt of the
United Provinces from Spain.
Grotius was made advocate-fiscal of Holland, Zee-
land, and West Friesland (1607) and then in 1613 pen-
sionary of Rotterdam, which gave him a seat in the states
general. The same year he visited England and this may
have encouraged him in his ARMINIANISM. The conflict be-
tween the Arminian REMONSTRANTS, under OLDENBARN-
EVELDT, and the GOMARISTS, or strict Calvinists, who had
the support of MAURICE OF NASSAU, came to a head in
1618; as a leader on the Remonstrant side, Grotius was
sentenced in 1619 to life imprisonment. In the castle of
Loevestein he continued his scholarly activities, and in
1621 his wife contrived his escape, concealed in a chest
that his warders thought contained books. He went via
Antwerp to Paris, where Louis XIII gave him a pension,
and thence to a château lent to him near Senlis. There he
completed De jure belli et pacis (1625), which he had first
drafted in 1604. This book, now recognized as a corner-
stone of international law, quickly became immensely fa-
mous, but Grotius’s enemies in Holland remained
implacable; apart from a six-month period in 1631–32 he
spent the rest of his life in exile in France or Germany and
finally as France’s ambassador in Stockholm. Unhappy in
this post, he obtained his recall, but died at Rostock on the
way south after a stormy journey. In addition to his legal
and historical writings, Grotius wrote on theological mat-
ters; his De veritate religionis Christianae (1627) and Via et
votum ad pacem ecclesiasticam (1642) both suggest means
of reconciliation between opposing Christian sects by
playing down doctrinal differences and playing up
grounds for accommodation.
Further reading: John Dunn and Ian Harris (eds),
Grotius (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1997).
Groto, Luigi (1541–1585) Italian poet and playwright
Known from his birthplace and disability as “Il Cieco
d’Adria” (the Blind Man of Adria), Groto wrote mainly in
Italian but also in Latin, Spanish, and Venetian dialect. His
works, both the extravagant and metrically complex
verses of Rime (1577) as well as the plays, show manner-
ist tendencies. The plays include the tragedies Dalida
(1572), a Senecan horror drama, and Hadriana (1578), a
dramatization of the Romeo and Juliet story. His comedies
are Emilia (1579), Tesoro (1580), and Alteria (1584).
Grün, Hans Baldung See BALDUNG GRIEN, HANS
Guarini, Battista (1538–1612) Italian poet
Belonging to the Ferrarese family of the distinguished hu-
manist GUARINO DA VERONA, he probably studied at Padua.
He was appointed professor of rhetoric in Ferrara
(1557–67), subsequently serving the Este court in secre-
tarial and diplomatic roles. Guarini also succeeded TASSO
as court poet after the latter’s disgrace in 1577. His final
years were marred by quarrels with patrons and his chil-
dren. He wrote lyrical verse and madrigals, a comedy
called La idropsica (1583; The Dropsical Woman), a treatise
on government, and a dialogue on letter-writing.
He is remembered for the immensely popular and in-
fluential pastoral play, Il pastor fido (1589; The Faithful
Shepherd), which stirred up a far-reaching critical debate.
Guarini’s controversial innovation was in mixing the
noble and sentimental styles to create a new genre, his
“pastoral tragicomedy,” which went far beyond its model,
Tasso’s Aminta, in combining heroic and pastoral el-
ements. He added his own voice to the critical discussion
with his defense of tragicomedy, Compendio della poesia
tragicomedia (1603). Admirers of the pastoral genre
throughout Europe ensured the continuing popularity
and influence of II pastor fide for at least 150 years after its
publication. Its first English translator was Sir Edward
Dymoke, who had visited Guarini while traveling in Italy
(c. 1590–91) and whose Faithfull Shepheard was published
in 1602 (repr. 1633). The most enduringly popular Eng-
lish translation, however, was that by Sir Richard Fan-
shawe (1647). It has been republished in a critical edition
by Peter Davidson of The Poems and Translations of Sir
Richard Fanshawe (2 vols, Oxford, 1997–99).Guarino, Battista (1434–1503) Italian humanist scholar
and educator
He was the son of GUARINO DA VERONAand he followed his
father’s footsteps in his native Ferrara, teaching Greek to
scholars who came to him from as far afield as Germany
and England. Of his pupils, the one who probably had the
greatest impact on Greek studies was Aldus MANUTIUS. In
1459 he composed the treatise De ordine docendi et stu-
dendi, which embodies his father’s ideas on the teaching
and studying of classical languages. His Poemata appeared
in 1496, and he was also responsible for several editions
and translations.Guarino da Verona (Guarino Guarini) (1374–1460)
Italian humanist scholar and educator
Guarino left his native Verona to study Greek with
CHRYSOLORASin Constantinople (1403–08), bringing back
with him over 50 Greek manuscripts. Guarino taught
Greek in several Italian centers—Florence (1410–14),
Venice (1414–18), and Verona—before settling finally in
Ferrara (1429), which he made into a showplace of hu-
manism. As tutor to the young Leonello d’Este, Guarino
was able to put into practice his theories about the educa-
tion of the model prince, but he is best remembered for his
services to the study of Greek, which he insisted was of
equal importance with Latin. Many 15th-century scholars
learnt their Greek from Guarino, including VITTORINO DA
FELTRE. He used his classical studies as the basis for his in-
fluential book on the rules of grammar, Regulae grammat-GGuuaarriinnoo ddaa VVeerroonnaa 2 22255