this scene, the figures are Italian in derivation; the artist
copied engravings after MANTEGNAfrom as early as 1506.
In the Berlin Nativity (c. 1512) Altdorfer utilized dramatic
lighting effects and one-point perspective with brilliant ef-
fect. This fundamental bent towards Mannerism devel-
oped still further in the eerie viewpoints and stunning
colors of the now dismantled altarpiece (1517) for St. Flo-
rian near Linz. The high point of Altdorfer’s career is his
Munich Battle of the Issus (1529), one of the great vision-
ary paintings of all time. Depicted from an almost astral
viewpoint, the forces of Alexander the Great pursue the
hordes of Darius into Asia. The background landscape
curves to reveal the rim of a spherical earth upon which
Cyprus and the North African coast may be plainly seen,
upside down, as though viewed from the north and an im-
mense height. Altdorfer was also outstanding as a drafts-
man of chiaroscuro drawings and a designer of woodcuts.
He was arguably the most individual genius in German
painting of the 16th century.
Further reading: Christopher S. Wood, Albrecht Alt-
dorfer and the Origins of Landscape (London: Reaktion
Books, 2003).
Altichiero (1320/30–1395) Italian painter
Altichiero was born at Zevio, near Verona, and was mainly
active in Verona and Padua. His style was influenced by
GIOTTOand he himself had numerous followers. Frescoes
by him can be seen in San Stefano and Sant’ Anastasia in
Verona and in the Santo and Oratorio di San Giorgio in
Padua.
Alva, Duke of See ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO,
3 RD DUKE OF
Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio (1447–1522) Italian
marble sculptor
He was born in Pavia and is documented from 1466 work-
ing on sculpture for the magnificent new Certosa (Carthu-
sian monastery) in his native town; in 1474 he was made
jointly responsible with the brothers Mantegazza for its
huge polychrome marble façade. Between 1470 and 1476
he carved the monuments and reliefs of the Colleoni
chapel in Bergamo and in 1490 was employed on Milan
cathedral. Apart from portraits, in which his work was in-
fluenced by classical prototypes, his sculpture was mostly
carved in relief, with religious themes predominating.
Amberger, Christoph (c. 1500–61/62) German painter
Amberger was born at Augsburg and probably trained
there under Hans BURGKMAIRand Leonhard BECK. In 1548
he met TITIAN, then visiting Augsburg. Amberger’s Berlin
portrait of Charles V (c. 1532) was influenced by the
Netherlandish court painter Jan VERMEYEN, who was at
Augsburg in 1530. References to the Venetian painters
PALMA VECCHIOand Paris BORDONEappear in Amberger’s
Vienna portraits of a man and a woman (1539) and his
Munich Christoph Fugger (1541). In the Berlin portrait of
Sebastian MÜNSTER(c. 1552), Amberger eschewed this in-
ternational mannerist style in favor of a more traditional
German approach. His altar for Augsburg cathedral
(1554) is similarly conservative, translating the late
Gothic architectual motifs of HOLBEIN THE ELDERinto a
contemporary Italianate idiom.Ambrose of Camaldoli See TRAVERSARI, AMBROGIOAmbrosiana, Bibliotheca The chief LIBRARYof MILAN,
founded by the bishop of Milan, Cardinal Federico Bor-
romeo (1564–1631), who named it after St. Ambrose, pa-
tron saint of the city. It was the first public library in Italy
and opened on December 8, 1609, with a collection of
over 30,000 books and 12,000 manuscripts housed in the
palace built by Borromeo between 1603 and 1609 on the
site of the Scuole Taverna. The library was enriched by
many private donations and bequests, as well as by the ac-
quisitions of its agents traveling abroad.Ambrosian Republic (1447–50) A Milanese regime es-
tablished immediately after Duke Filippo Maria Visconti
(see VISCONTI FAMILY) died without an heir. Twenty-four
local notables—“captains and defenders of liberty”—
named the republic in honor of St. Ambrose, Milan’s pa-
tron. Divisions within the ruling group, discontent from
the lesser bourgeoisie, rebellion in subject cities, and the
hostility of Venice brought the republic close to collapse.
In autumn 1449 Francesco SFORZA, a condottiere formerly
in Duke Filippo Maria’s employ and married to the duke’s
illegitimate daughter, besieged the city; in March 1450 the
republic surrendered and Sforza was installed as duke of
Milan.Amerbach, Johannes (1443–1513) Swiss printer and
publisher
He studied in Paris and then returned to Basle to set up a
printing house (1475) with the principal aim of producing
good texts of the works of the Church Fathers (see also PA-
TRISTIC STUDIES). He gathered round him a circle of schol-
ars that included REUCHLIN, and in 1511 employed a
Dominican, Johannes Cono of Nuremberg (1463–1513),
to instruct his sons and any other interested parties in
Greek and Hebrew in his own house, which became a vir-
tual academy for northern European scholars. This intel-
lectual tradition was continued by Amerbach’s successor,
FROBEN.Ames, William (Amesius) (1576–1633) English Puritan
divine
Ames was born at Ipswich. Having gained a reputation as
a controversialist while at Cambridge, he left England for
the Netherlands after being forbidden to preach at Col-AAmmeess,, WWiilllliiaamm 1133