dedicated to Princess Marguerite de France, which caused
scandal by its frank discussion of gynecology and obstet-
rics in the vernacular. In line with the Renaissance trend
toward the professionalization of medicine, Erreurs popu-
laires is typical of Joubert’s tracts in its agenda of enhanc-
ing the status of the physician against other medical
practitioners, such as apothecaries and midwives.
Journée des Barricades (May 12, 1588) A Catholic re-
volt in Paris, which was one of the decisive events in the
final stages of the French Wars of RELIGION. The Parisians,
many of whom supported the Catholic League by which
Duke Henry of Guise (see GUISE FAMILY) hoped to secure
his succession to the throne, had grown increasingly anx-
ious during the 1580s about the threat from Huguenot
force and they were also weary of the vacillations of the in-
effectual King HENRY III. They invited Duke Henry to come
to their aid, which he did in defiance of the king’s ban
against his entering Paris, and the Parisians then erected
barricades against their sovereign. The king fled to
Chartres and, unable to recover his position, determined
upon the assassination of Guise and his brother in De-
cember that year.
Julius II (1443–1513) Pope (1503–13)
Giuliano della Rovere came from an impoverished noble
family (see DELLA ROVERE FAMILY) in Liguria. When his
uncle became Pope SIXTUS IV(1471) he gained a cardinal’s
hat and many benefices. He served on papal missions and
helped defend Rome against Naples, but had to leave
Rome when his enemy Rodrigo Borgia became Pope
ALEXANDER VI(1492). When Alexander VI died (1503)
Cardinal della Rovere returned to Rome and was elected
pope after Pius III’s short reign. Once elected, Julius broke
his promises to continue the war against the Turks, to call
a general council within two years, and to consult the car-
dinals on all important matters.
Julius took some interest in Church reform; he issued
a bull against simony and encouraged the reform of the
Benedictines. He also summoned the fifth Lateran Coun-
cil in 1511. Julius was primarily a military leader and
statesman who did much to restore the papacy’s temporal
power. After defeating Cesare BORGIAin battle (1504) he
commanded an expedition which forced Perugia and
Bologna to submit to papal authority (1506). He joined
the League of CAMBRAIagainst Venice (1509) and after
Venice’s defeat joined the anti-French HOLY LEAGUE(1511).
With the support of Emperor MAXIMILIAN Ihe foiled LOUIS
XII’s attempts to depose him and isolated France. He occu-
pied Modena (1510) and took Mirandola (1511).
Julius was a clever financial administrator, but is best
remembered for his generosity to such great artists as
RAPHAEL, MICHELANGELO, and BRAMANTE. He expanded the
Vatican Library, collected ancient sculpture, and laid the
cornerstone of ST. PETER’Sbasilica, Rome.
Further reading: Christine Shaw, Julius II: The Warrior
Pope (Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell, 1993).Juni, Juan de (c. 1507–1577) French-born sculptor
Although probably a native of Burgundy, Juni became a
part of the Spanish artistic tradition, arriving at León in
1533 and settling in Valladolid in 1540. His early works
include portrait medallions (1536) for the facade of San
Marcos, León, but he is best known for the polychromed
wood group The Entombment of Christ (1539–44; Val-
ladolid museum), which testifies to Juni’s great technical
skill and emotionalism. Other pieces include a large rere-
dos (1545–61; Valladolid cathedral) for Sta. Maria la An-
tigua and other altarpieces. He also executed works in
Salamanca and Zamora. His later pieces anticipated the
BAROQUEin Spain.Junta press See GIUNTI PRESSjuros (Spanish juro, “I swear”) In Spain, bonds promising
a fixed rate of interest. These bonds were issued by the
Hapsburg monarchs of Spain and were sold to finance the
European wars of CHARLES Vand PHILIP II, but became a
factor in the financial crisis afflicting Spain at the end of
the 16th century.justification by faith In Christian theology, the doctrine
that a sinner becomes or is counted righteous before God
through a personal faith in Jesus Christ as savior. The idea
is first clearly stated by St. Paul (Romans 1–3), who insists
that salvation cannot be earned by observation of the Jew-
ish Law, but must be accepted as a free gift through faith
in Christ. The doctrine was further elaborated by St. Au-
gustine in his dispute with the Pelagians, who held that
humans could attain justification through their own mer-
its; however, it was not generally emphasized by medieval
theologians, who tended to see membership of the Church,
participation in the sacraments, and the performance of
good works as the way to salvation. An insistence on jus-
tification by faith alone reemerged at the Reformation,
when it became a fundamental principle of Protestant
teaching and led to the rejection of many traditional doc-
trines and practices.
LUTHER’s writings express a profound, almost existen-
tial, anguish about justification. For him, the Church’s in-
sistence on good works was fundamentally flawed
because, however pious, no human could ever reach God’s
standards—accordingly, no believer could feel secure
about his or her salvation. God, for Luther, offers divine
grace whether or not one strives to deserve it. When a be-
liever accepts Christ as his or her savior, God “imputes”
righteousness to this person, even though he or she re-
mains a sinner. Protestants, generally, adopted Luther’s
conclusions. Contrarily, the Catholic Council of TRENT
(1545–63) maintained that faith needed to be augmented22664 4 JJoouurrnnee ́ ́ee ddeess BBaarrrriiccaaddeess