of the learned easily transcended national boundaries. The
major controversy connected with the creation of a body
of humanistic Latin literature—the Ciceronian debate (see
CICERO)—also flourished across Europe. Virtually every
humanist demonstrated his proficiency in Latin with a
volume of Latin verse, though these were often juvenile or
occasional productions; other writers produced Latin po-
etry that had a major impact upon poetic developments in
the vernaculars (see LATIN STUDIES; PASTORAL). Women too
showed off their humanist credentials in Latin verse,
although publication of their work was comparatively
uncommon; an exception was Elizabeth Jane WESTON,
known as Westonia, who gained international acclaim
with her Parthenicon (1602).
In prose SALUTATIwas one of the first humanists to
win renown as a stylist, followed by BRUNI, FICINO, PICO
DELLA MIRANDOLA, and other Florentine writers. Juan Luis
VIVÈSwas the leading Spanish Latinist, and in northern
Europe ERASMUSand Marc-Antoine MURETwere among
those whom contemporaries singled out as stylistic mod-
els, the former colloquial and fluent, the latter more pol-
ished and correct. Other northern European humanists
held in high regard for their Latin prose or versification
were CELTISin Germany, SECUNDUSand GROTIUSin Hol-
land, Sir Thomas MOREand his circle in England, and
George BUCHANANin Scotland.
See also: EPISTOLAE OBSCURORUM VIRORUM
Further reading: Grahame Castor and Terence Cave
(eds), Neo-Latin and the Vernacular in Renaissance France
(Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press and New York: Oxford
University Press, 1984); Ian D. McFarlane (ed.), Renais-
sance Latin Poetry (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester Univer-
sity Press and Totowa, N. J.: Barnes & Noble, 1980);
Alessandro Perosa and John Sparrow (eds), Renaissance
Latin Verse (London: Duckworth, 1979).
Neoplatonism, Renaissance Neoplatonism developed
in the second and third centuries CE, mainly in Alexandria
where Greek, Jewish, and oriental ideas had a natural
meeting place. Its greatest exponent was PLOTINUS, who in
the Enneads developed a complex structure of mysticism
and allegory which, while using aspects of PLATO’s d o c -
trines as a starting point, introduced an element of the ir-
rational which was far removed from Plato’s own ideas.
Gnostic concepts were also incorporated and in its fully
developed form the system constituted a serious challenge
to Christianity. This philosophical school never com-
pletely died out in Constantinople and when Greek teach-
ers migrated to Italy in the 15th century they brought with
them Neoplatonism in its Byzantine form.
Gemistus PLETHON’s work is typical of the writings
that conveyed Neoplatonic ideas to the Renaissance.
Though ostensibly a Platonist, he was heavily influenced
by the Alexandrian school, and by Stoicism and oriental
religions such as Zoroastrianism. In his major work Nomoi
(Laws) he attributed souls to the stars, accepted
metempsychosis (transference of souls), and derived his
social morality from natural law in a way that scandalized
the orthodox Western Christians. These and similar ideas
were congenial to many Renaissance thinkers, and Neo-
platonism spread from Florence to other Italian centers.
The work of Marsilio FICINO, who translated Plotinus into
Latin in 1492, and of PICO DELLA MIRANDOLAhelped to
popularize Neoplatonic ideas, and the transcendentalism
of Plethon’s philosophy appealed to those who were look-
ing for a unifying principle and already using MAGIC, her-
metic theories, and heterodox Christian mysticism as
elements to further that search (see also EGYPTIAN STUD-
IES). Neoplatonism exercised a powerful influence on cre-
ative writers in the Renaissance. Its characteristic mode
was allegory and the exegetical potential of the allegorical
approach was attractive to both poets and prose writers.
Spenser’s FAERIE QUEENE, for instance, has many Neopla-
tonic elements.
It is in fact almost impossible to draw rigid distinc-
tions between Platonism and Neoplatonism in the Renais-
sance; striking evidence of this is the fact that the
discussions of the PLATONIC ACADEMYat Florence were
concerned far more with essentially Neoplatonic ideas
than with authentic Platonism.
See also: PLATONISM, RENAISSANCE
Further reading: Konrad Eisenbichler and Olga Zorzi
Pugliese (eds), Ficino and Renaissance Neoplatonism
(Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1988).Neri, St. Philip See PHILIP NERI, STNeri di Bicci (1419–c. 1491) Italian painter
Born in Florence, Neri trained under his father Bicci di
Lorenzo (1373–1452), although the influence of other
eminent contemporary Florentine artists, such as Fra An-
gelico and Fra Filippo Lippi, can also be seen in his large
output. He himself became a sought-after teacher. Exam-
ples of his work are to be found in several Florentine
churches, and his journal, covering the years 1453–75, is
in the Uffizi, Florence.Neroccio (di Bartolommeo) dei Landi (1447–c. 1500)
Italian painter and sculptor
Based in his native Siena, Neroccio was the partner of
FRANCESCOdi Giorgio for several years (1467–75) and
typified the charming poetic quality of the Sienese school.
His most important works include Madonna with Saints,
Antony and Cleopatra, and Portrait of a Girl, all in the Na-
tional Gallery, Washington. Two particularly attractive
treatments of the Madonna and Child theme are in the
Pinacoteca in Siena.Netherlands, Revolt of the (1566–1609) The Dutch re-
bellion against Spanish rule, caused by Spanish attemptsNNeetthheerrllaannddss,, RReevvoolltt ooff tthhee 3 33399