through papal patronage cardinal deacon (1493), bishop
of Parma (1509), and papal legate to the Lateran Council
(1512). Despite fathering several illegitimate children, he
gave up his mistress before his ordination (1519) and sub-
sequently led an irreproachable private life, although as
pope he indulged in nepotism. Paul III wished to unite
Catholic Europe against Turks and Protestants, but could
not persuade Emperor CHARLES Vand FRANCIS Iof France
to settle their differences.
By supporting agriculture, the construction of fortifi-
cations, and major projects in Rome Paul III brought pros-
perity and security to his domains, but his attempts to
assert his authority elsewhere provoked the Perugian SALT
WA R. He supported reform within the Roman Church, ap-
pointed virtuous men as cardinals, favored such new reli-
gious orders as the JESUITS, and established the Holy Office
of the Italian Inquisition (1542). He summoned the Coun-
cil of TRENT, the first meeting (1545) of which marked the
beginning of the COUNTER-REFORMATIONand led to major
administrative and spiritual reforms. A patron of the arts
and learning, Paul III added to the Vatican Library, re-
stored the university of Rome, completed the plans for the
new St. Peter’s, and persuaded MICHELANGELOto finish
The Last Judgment in the SISTINE CHAPEL. In 1543 he com-
missioned a portrait from TITIANand in 1546 the artist
began a famous but unfinished portrait of the elderly Paul
III with two of his “nephews,” i.e. grandsons (Museo Na-
zionale, Naples). Cristóbal MORALESwas one of those who
benefited from Paul’s discerning patronage of music.
Paul IV (1476–1559) Pope (1555–59)
Giampietro Caraffa was born into an aristocratic Abruzzi
family. Having served as papal nuncio in England and
acted as adviser to the papacy on means of counteracting
heresy, he was co-founder of the THEATINE ORDER(1524).
As cardinal archbishop of Naples from 1536 he was an ac-
tive ecclesiastical reformer whose reorganization of the
Italian Inquisition made it a feared defender of Catholic
orthodoxy. An austere and authoritarian pope, he curbed
clerical abuses in Rome, disciplined erring clergy, and
forced JEWSto live in a Roman ghetto and to wear badges.
He joined France in a war against Spain, but Spain’s vic-
tory compelled him to make peace with PHILIP II(1557).
Paul’s unwillingness to compromise led him to charge
Cardinal POLEwith heresy and facilitated the Protestant
victory in England. In 1559 Paul issued the first INDEX LI-
BRORUM PROHIBITORUM.
Paumann, Konrad (c. 1410–1473) German composer
and organist
Paumann, who was born blind, was organist at the church
of St. Sebald in his native Nuremberg from at least 1446;
the next year he was appointed town organist. In 1450 he
became court organist to Duke Albrecht III of Bavaria in
Munich, a post he retained for the rest of his life. Famous
throughout Germany as an organist, from 1450 Paumann
traveled widely through France, Italy, Germany, and Aus-
tria, playing and examining instruments at the courts of
dukes and princes. Few of Paumann’s compositions sur-
vive, probably because he was unable to write them down;
it is thought by some, however, that he was the inventor
of German lute tablature. His treatise, Fundamentum or-
ganisandi (1452), gives examples of the ornamentation of
chant, with keyboard arrangements of chants and secular
melodies.Pavia, battle of (February 24, 1525) A victory by the
forces of Emperor CHARLES V, numbering some 23,000,
against FRANCIS Iof France. Francis had invaded Italy in
1524 and beseiged Pavia, near Milan, with 28,000 men, as
a preliminary to attacking Milan itself. The imperial force’s
attempt to relieve the town resulted in a battle in which
the French army was destroyed and the king captured.
The battle established the Hapsburgs as the dominant
power in Italy, and Charles was able to dictate the terms of
Francis’s release in the treaty of Madrid (1526); but
France’s power was not broken, and the threat of Haps-
burg domination in Europe attracted allies to the French
king. Pavia was also significant in conclusively demon-
strating the superiority of FIREARMSover cavalry lances.
See also: ITALY, WARS OFPazzi conspiracy (1478) A plot by Francesco and Jacopo
Pazzi, of the Florentine banking family who were long-
time rivals to the MEDICI, to assassinate Lorenzo de’ Medici
and his brother Giuliano. Their fellow-conspirators in-
cluded the archbishop of Pisa, and the plot had the tacit
support of Pope Sixtus IV (whose nephew, Girolamo
Riaro, was among the plotters) because of Lorenzo’s efforts
to thwart consolidation of papal rule over the Romagna.
The Medici brothers were to be killed in the cathedral in
Florence after Mass on Easter Day (April 26); in the event,
Giuliano was killed, but Lorenzo escaped with only slight
injuries. Simultaneous attempts to raise the populace
against the Medici met with no support. Subsequent ex-
ecutions (including that of the archbishop of Pisa) and ex-
iles broke the influence of the Pazzi family and
strengthened the Medici hold on Florence.
Further reading: Lauro Martines, April Blood: Flo-
rence and the Plot against the Medici (London: Cape and
New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).Peasants’ Revolt (1524–26) An abortive insurrection of
German peasants. Although its leaders claimed many spe-
cific grievances, the underlying cause of the revolt was the
deteriorating economic situation of the peasantry in the
early 16th century. A mood of unrest was also stimulated
by the spread of new religious ideas, including LUTHER’s
emphasis on “the liberty of Christian men.” In the main
statement of rebel claims, the 12 Articles of March 1525,33666 6 PPaauull IIVV