where antique funerary motifs, expressed in architecture,
sculpture, and painting, proclaimed the ascent of Chigi’s
soul to heaven. Raphael was also much in demand as a
portrait painter; his Julius II (c. 1511; National Gallery,
London) and Baldassare Castiglione (c. 1515; Louvre,
Paris) are just two outstanding examples of his skill in this
field.
In 1514 Pope Leo X appointed Raphael architect of St.
Peter’s and in 1515, superintendent of Roman antiquities.
Raphael’s architectural works displayed his increasing ap-
preciation of classical vocabulary. His design for the Chigi
stables (1514–18; now destroyed) incorporated column
bases modeled on those of the Forum of Nerva, while the
incomplete Villa Madama (c. 1518) owes much to the
classical villas of Pliny the Younger. While Raphael’s TA-
PESTRYcartoons of the Acts of the Apostles (c. 1515–19;
Royal Collection, Victoria and Albert Museum, London)
still display a classical majesty, his last work, the Transfig-
uration (1518–20; Vatican museum, Rome) suggests a new
departure in its dramatic chiaroscuro and violently twist-
ing figures. Unfinished at his death, it was displayed over
his coffin in the Pantheon.
Further reading: Luciano Berti, Raphael (London:
Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1961); Leopold D. and Helen S.
Ettlinger, Raphael (Oxford, U.K.: Phaidon, 1987); Antonio
P. Graziano et al, Michelangelo and Raphael in the Vatican
(Rome: Treasures Inc., 1997); Christiane L. Joast-Gaugier,
Raphael’s Stanza della Segnatura: Meaning and Invention
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
Ratdolt, Erhard (c. 1447–1528) German printer and type
cutter
He worked in Venice for 10 years from 1476 and, on his
return to his native Augsburg (1486), issued the first
known specimen sheet, showing 10 sizes of gothic type,
three roman, and one Greek. In Venice his innovations in-
cluded the first title-page (in REGIOMONTANUS’s Kalendar-
ius (1476), which also had diagrams of solar and lunar
eclipses printed in color) and the 400 diagrams in his edi-
tion of Euclid’s Elementa (1482), the first to be printed.
Decorated initials and borders were used with woodcuts
in the missals and breviaries that Ratdolt also produced.
Ratisbon, Colloquy of See REGENSBURG, COLLOQUY OF
Raymond of Sebonde (died c. 1436) Spanish philoso-
pher, doctor, and theologian
He was born in Barcelona and in the 1430s he was profes-
sor at Toulouse, where he died. There he composed his
most important work, the Liber creaturarum seu naturae,
which was printed about 1480 under the title Theologia
naturalis. Raymond sought to reach an understanding of
God through the “two books,” that of the creatures and
that of sacred Scripture. This approach united the claims
of reason and faith. Raymond’s work attracted the criti-
cism of the Church, and the prologue to the Theologia was
suppressed and put on the INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBITORUM
(1595). MONTAIGNE translated the work into French
(1569), and one of his best-known essays is L’Apologie de
Raimond Sebon, defending the Spaniard’s emphasis on the
“book of nature.”Real Presence Any doctrine of the Eucharist which
maintains that Christ is actually present in the sacrament,
as opposed to the view of more radical Protestants that
Christ’s presence is merely figurative. The term can in-
clude the Catholic doctrine of TRANSUBSTANTIATION, but is
more often used of moderate Protestant doctrines such as
that of LUTHER, who held that Christ’s body and blood are
present “in, with, and under” the bread and wine, and that
of CALVIN, who held that the bread and wine remain phys-
ically unaltered but that believers are blessed by Christ’s
“spiritual presence” in the sacrament. The term is partic-
ularly associated with the Anglican Church, which found
it a usefully imprecise formula. The Real Presence is men-
tioned in Foxe’s Book of Martyrs (1563) as a tenet of
Bishop Hugh Latimer (burnt for heresy in 1555 under
Mary I), and the Anglican position on it is set out in Je-
remy Taylor’s 1654 book, The Real Presence.recusancy In Elizabethan and Jacobean England, the
legally defined position of those Roman Catholics who re-
fused to attend services of the established Church. In the
early part of ELIZABETH I’s reign the great majority of
Catholics chose outward conformity and were not ha-
rassed for their faith. However, this changed abruptly in
1570, when the pope excommunicated and anathematized
Elizabeth, effectively forcing English Catholics to choose
between their religion and their allegiance. The growing
strength of recusancy, encouraged from 1580 by Catholic
missionaries such as Edmund CAMPIONdispatched from
the Continent, became a serious concern to the authori-
ties, especially as the threat of a Spanish invasion loomed
in the 1580s. Accordingly, the existing Acts of Uniformity
were bolstered by further statutes (1581, 1586–87, 1593)
imposing harsh penalties on recusants. Failure to attend
church incurred a heavy fine, with persistent offenders li-
able to confiscations of their goods and estates; hearing
Mass was punishable by imprisonment; making or be-
coming a convert to Catholicism was defined as an act of
treason. However, the extent to which these laws were en-
forced varied greatly, and in some predominantly Catholic
areas, such as northwest England, they seem to have been
widely evaded. For this reason the true number of recu-
sants is hard to compute. Figures from 1603 show that
8,630 people were indicted for recusancy that year, but it
seems probable that the number of recusants who found
ways of bystepping the law was much higher than this.rederijkers See CHAMBERS OF RHETORIC44006 6 RRaattddoolltt,, EErrhhaarrdd