treatments of Arthurian legend with his prose Morte
Darthur, written in the mid-15th century, when the age of
chivalry (if it had ever existed) was long past. It kept alive
the ideals of love and war as the twin poles of a world pop-
ulated almost exclusively by knights and ladies.
Perception of Arthur as a national hero was fueled by
the story that, like CHARLEMAGNE, he would one day re-
turn and lead his people to great victories; 12th-century
writers had reported that on his tomb in Glastonbury were
the words “Rex quondam et rexque futurus” (the once and
future king). The quasi historical aspect of Arthurian leg-
end was first exploited by the Tudors. Henry VII had his
genealogy traced back to Arthur and christened his first-
born son Arthur (1486–1502) in his honor. The Round
Table in Winchester castle predates the Tudors but was re-
painted by Henry VIII with the Tudor rose for the visit of
Emperor Charles V in 1522, and the names and motifs of
Arthurian legend provided a framework for the neo-
medieval tournaments laid on by Elizabeth I. As late as
1610 James I’s eldest son Henry (1594–1612) was pre-
sented by “King Arthur” with a sword to restore chivalry
in an entertainment scripted by Ben JONSON.
By enrolling Arthur as one of the Nine Worthies of the
World (preface to Morte Darthur, 1485), the printer Cax-
ton guaranteed his place in innumerable pageants, but on
a more serious literary level it was felt that Arthur ought
to be the subject of a British national epic. Edmund
Spenser’s plan for THE FAERIE QUEENE, set out in the letter
to RALEIGHappended to the first edition (1590), seems to
take this into account, but the completed part of the poem
does not place Arthur in the center of the action as might
have been expected. Nonetheless, as the embodiment of
the peculiarly Renaissance virtue of “Magnificence,” he
makes significant interventions in the affairs of the poem.
As late as the 1640s John Milton was still planning an
Arthuriad, a national epic with Arthur as its hero.
Further reading: Jonathan Hughes, Arthurian Myths
and Alchemy: The Kingship of Edward IV (Stroud, U.K.: Sut-
ton, 2003); James D. Merriman, The Flower of Kings: A
Study of the Arthurian Legend in England Between 1485 and
1835 (Wichita: University Press of Kansas, 1973).
artillery In the medieval period, any missile-throwing
device, including the javelin-launching ballista and stone-
hurling trebuchet. Introduced first by Greek and Roman
engineers, their effectiveness against the increasingly mas-
sive castles of the late medieval period had become much
reduced. Conditions changed in the 14th century with the
introduction of the CANNON. Although the first certain ref-
erence to the cannon dates from 1326, it took time before
the early primitive models could be adapted to the de-
mands of field artillery officers. To begin with, GUNPOW-
DERneeded to be improved. Made from saltpeter, sulfur,
and charcoal, and ground into a fine powder known as
serpentine, early samples tended to separate when trans-
ported over rough European roads, with unpredictable re-
sults. The solution came with the invention (c. 1425) of
corned powder, in which the ingredients were first mixed
into a wet paste before being allowed to dry.
Further problems arose over the question of mobility.
Although never really solved, the introduction in the late
1300s of light two-wheeled carts known as ribauldequins
gave artillery officers greater access to the battlefield. Such
factors, together with improved cannon design, began to
shift the balance of military power. Even the mighty
fortress of Constantinople was unable to withstand such
pressure and fell in 1453 to the artillery of Mehmet II
(ironically, the technology was imported from the West).
The power of artillery was again demonstrated when
CHARLES VIIIof France invaded Italy in 1494 and managed
without undue difficulty to destroy any town offering
resistance.
It took longer, however, to adapt artillery to naval use.
Although known to have been in use as early as 1338,
guns were at first mounted only on the upper decks and it
was not until the early 16th century that ports were cut in
ships’ hulls enabling cannon to be sited on the main deck.
Thereafter the fire-power of ships continued to grow and,
as at the battle of Lepanto in 1571, would henceforth be
decisive in determining naval supremacy.
See also: FORTIFICATIONAscensius, Jodocus Badius See BADIUS ASCENSIUS,
JODOCUSAscham, Roger (c. 1515–1568) English humanist and
writer
He was born near York and educated at Cambridge where
he became a fellow of St. John’s (1534) and a reader in
Greek. He attracted HENRY VIII’s attention with his Tox-
ophilus (1545), a treatise on archery, written (unusually
for the time) in English. Between 1548 and 1550 he was
tutor to the future ELIZABETH I, and then served Sir
Richard Moryson, England’s ambassador to CHARLES V, for
several years, during which he traveled widely on the
Continent. A noted penman, he was appointed Latin sec-
retary (1553) to MARY I, which post he subsequently also
held under Elizabeth. One of the leading English human-
ists of his day, Ascham strove to make the vernacular a ve-
hicle of true eloquence; to facilitate this, he urged the
adoption of Senecan and Ciceronian models, while abhor-
ring excessive pedantry and affectation (see CICERO;
SENECA). He himself wrote simple, lively, lucid prose,
often enhanced by vivid and humane observations. His
best-known book, The Scholemaster (1570), was a land-
mark in educational theory, concerned not only with the
teaching of Latin prose composition, but also with the na-
ture and proper scope of education.AAsscchhaamm,, RRooggeerr 3333