enfants en France (1625) and Receuil des secrets de Louise
Bourgeois (1635).
Bourgeois, Loys (c. 1510/15–c. 1560) French composer
and theorist
Bourgeois, as a singer at the churches of St. Pierre and St.
Gervais in Geneva, taught the choristers to lead congrega-
tional singing according to the monophonic Calvinistic
Psalter. His book of psalm tunes (1551) proved highly un-
popular with the Geneva council, who claimed that the
new melodies confused congregations. Bourgeois was im-
prisoned, but was released the next day on the interces-
sion of CALVIN. In August 1552 he took leave to visit Lyons
and did not return. By 1560 he had moved to Paris. Bour-
geois is chiefly known for his Calvinistic psalm settings, in
which he adapted popular chansons and Latin hymns as
well as composing new melodies for translations by Clé-
ment MAROTand BEZA. He also wrote Le droict chemin de
musique (1550), the first didactic manual in French deal-
ing with singing and sight reading. In this he introduced
the concept of solfège and advocated a simplified system
of music theory and practice.
Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of (1438) A decree of
Charles VII, in response to a resolution of an assembly of
prelates and delegates, named by the king, to regulate the
affairs of the Church in France. It was designed to limit
papal power in France, especially concerning nomination
to bishoprics and other benefices, and to protect the liber-
ties of the Gallican (French) Church. It was terminated by
the Concord(at) of BOLOGNA(1516).
Bouts, Dirk (c. 1415–1475) Netherlands painter
Bouts was born in Haarlem, but from 1445/48 until his
death was based in Louvain. His key work is the Last Sup-
per triptych (1464–67) for the Brotherhood of the Holy
Sacrament at the church of St. Peter’s, Louvain. Its central
panel reveals the early use of one-point perspective. For
the municipal authorities of his home town Bouts painted
a Last Judgment triptych, of which the wings survive in
Lille, and a diptych of The Justice of the Emperor Otto, now
in Brussels, which was unfinished on his death. His Lon-
don Portrait of Man (1462) may be a self-portrait. Bouts’s
angular and undemonstrative style is derived from Rogier
van der WEYDENbut has a peculiar intensity of its own. He
had a number of followers, including his sons Dirk (died
1490/91) and Aelbrecht (died 1548).
Bracciolini, Poggio (1380–1459) Italian humanist
scholar and collector of manuscripts
Born at Terra Nuova d’Arezzo and educated at Florence
under John of Ravenna and Manuel CHRYSOLORAS, he at-
tracted the attention of Coluccio SALUTATI, who found
work for him (1403) in the Curia, which he served for 50
years. In his capacity as secretary Poggio attended the
Council of CONSTANCE(1414–18); this gave him the op-
portunity to make four journeys to French and German
monasteries in search of manuscripts. He discovered nu-
merous manuscripts of classical authors, including hith-
erto unknown speeches of CICEROwith the commentaries
of the first century CEscholar Asconius, and important
texts of works by QUINTILIAN, Valerius Flaccus, LUCRETIUS,
Silius Italicus, VITRUVIUS(see also ARCHITECTURE), and Sta-
tius. His Ciceronian discoveries in particular caused a
sensation when they reached Italy. In 1418 Poggio accom-
panied Cardinal Henry Beaufort to England where he re-
mained four years, occupying himself with PATRISTIC
STUDIESand looking unsuccessfully for manuscripts. On
his return to Rome he continued his textual studies and
added archaeology to his interests. In 1453 he retired to
Florence as chancellor and composed a history of the city
covering the previous century.
Poggio was also famous as a story-teller and his Liber
facetiarum, anecdotes often of a salacious and scandalous
nature, became very popular (see FACETIAE). He was a
great letter-writer, corresponding with most leading schol-
ars of the day, and his letters are a valuable source of in-
formation; they include, for instance, an eyewitness
account of the trial and execution of Jerome of Prague
(1416). Poggio’s last years were clouded by a furious quar-
rel with Lorenzo VALLA; he actually tried to have Valla
murdered. The quarrel arose from Valla’s insistence that
Latin should be written according to classical models,
while Poggio wrote Latin as if it were a living language.
The feud marked a turning point in the resurrection of
ancient literature: the stylistically naive approach of the
first-generation humanists was replaced by a more self-
consciously artistic observance of Ciceronian canons,
which in turn led to the kind of extravagances later paro-
died by ERASMUS.Brahe, Sophie (1556–1643) Danish astronomer
The younger sister of Tycho BRAHE, Sophie was unable, as
a woman, to enter university, but studied mathematics,
music, astrology, medicine, and alchemy with tutors at
home. She learned astronomy at her brother’s observatory
on Hven, assisting him in the study of eclipses and trans-
lating Latin texts on astrology into Danish. After her
arranged marriage to a much older man, she took up
chemistry, biology, and horticulture, and designed her gar-
den at Eriksholm, in Scania. Following her husband’s
death she worked again with her brother, tracing the orbit
of planets and their position relative to the stars. Her im-
pecunious second husband brought debts upon the family,
which she paid off by casting horoscopes and working as
a herbalist and healer. Sophie’s contribution to astronomy
is frequently subsumed within her brother’s groundbreak-
ing work.BBrraahhee,, SSoopphhiiee 6677