Brahe died long before the work could be completed, it
was finally published in 1627 by Kepler as the Rudolfine
Tables.
At a more theoretical level Brahe was led, following
his observation of the nova of 1572, and the comet of
1577, to reject the crystalline spheres of classical cosmol-
ogy. He did not, however, as might have been expected,
embrace the heliocentric system of COPERNICUS, but in-
stead proposed in his De mundi aetherei recentioribus
phaenominis (On recent phenomena of the aetherial
world; 1588) his alternative TYCHONIC SYSTEM.
Further reading: Kitty Ferguson, Tycho and Kepler
(New York: Walker, 2002); R. Taton and C. Wilson, The
General History of Astronomy, Vol. 2A: Tycho Brahe to New-
ton (Cambridge, U.K. and New York: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1989); Victor Thoren, The Lord of Uraniborg
(Cambridge, U.K. and New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1990).
Bramante, Donato (c. 1444–1514) Italian architect
Born near Urbino, Bramante began his career as a painter,
allegedly a pupil of PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA and MAN-
TEGNAwho instilled in him an appreciation of classical an-
tiquity as mirrored in the architecture of the Palazzo
Ducale, Urbino. Little is known of him until 1497 when
he entered the service of Duke Lodovico Sforza “il Moro”
of Milan, who also patronized LEONARDO DA VINCI.
Leonardo’s fascination with centrally planned forms and
his understanding of BRUNELLESCHI’s concept of perspec-
tive profoundly influenced Bramante, whose design for
Sta. Maria presso San Satiro, Milan (1482–86), displays an
awareness of Brunelleschi’s Pazzi chapel in Florence
(1429–69) in its oblong plan with niches carved out of the
wall mass; the coffered dome is evidence of an impressive
implementation of antique style and techniques. Bra-
mante’s concern with harmonious spatial effects led him
to create an illusionistic east end for this church—neces-
sary because a street ran across the end of the building.
His manipulation of real and illusionistic space also man-
ifested itself in Sta. Maria delle Grazie, Milan, begun in
1493; there the fictive roundels of the dome and fake ped-
imented windows in its base create an impression of clar-
ity and light. The spatial solutions of the centrally planned
east end reflect Leonardo’s handling of volume in the LAST
SUPPERin the refectory of the same church. The cloisters
of Sant’ Ambrogio (1497–98) demonstrate Bramante’s in-
creasing understanding of the classical language of orders.
His use of basket capitals and tree-trunk columns in the
Corinthian cloister shows a radical interpretation of VIT-
RUVIUS.
In 1499 Bramante moved to Rome. First-hand contact
with Roman antique architecture introduced a new and
weighty classicism to his designs. The cloister of Sta.
Maria della Pace, begun in 1500, has sturdy piers and at-
tached Ionic columns on the ground floor, deriving from
the Colosseum. This air of majestic gravity reached its
apogee in the Tempietto (1502) at San Pietro in Montorio,
Rome. The small circular structure, erected as a mar-
tyrium to St. Peter, is reminiscent of the temple of Sibyl at
Tivoli, with its classical entablature carried on a Tuscan
Doric colonnade and rich frieze of metopes and triglyphs.
It is the first monument of the High Renaissance and es-
tablished a prototype for 16th-century church design. Bra-
mante’s Palazzo Caprini (1510, now destroyed) did the
same for palace design in its symmetrical plan and repeti-
tive use of simple but elegant elements.
Bramante’s last years were spent in the service of POPE
JULIUS IIfor whom he remodeled part of the Vatican
palace. The Cortile di San Damaso was built as a series of
open arcades and the Belvedere was linked to the palace
by a classically inspired amphitheater on three levels. His
most important project was that of ST. PETER’S, which, tak-
ing its cue from the Tempietto, was envisaged as a mar-
tyrium on a heroic scale. His plan—a Greek cross with
four smaller Greek crosses in the angles—was to have
been crowned by a huge cupola reminiscent of the Pan-
theon. Although only the central crossing was built ac-
cording to his plan, Bramante’s ideas were the starting
point for all subsequent designs, and his work in Rome
was the foundation of Roman High Renaissance architec-
ture.
Further reading: Arnaldo Bruschi, Bramante (Lon-
don: Thames & Hudson and New York: W. W. Norton,
1977).Brant, Sebastian (1457/8–1521) German humanist and
poet
Famed in his time both as a poet and as a legal authority,
Brant is remembered now as a major influence on German
literature. Born at Strasbourg, he was introduced to hu-
manism at Basle university, where from 1475 he studied
law and then taught it. In Basle he also practiced as a
lawyer and selected and edited books for the city’s print-
ers. In 1501 he returned to Strasbourg, where he became
municipal secretary and co-founded a literary society.
Throughout his life he corresponded with other eminent
humanists. His wide-ranging interests expressed them-
selves in poetry (composed initially in Latin but increas-
ingly in German), translations from Latin and medieval
German, legal and historical works, and secular pam-
phlets and broadsheets. It was, however, his satirical poem
Das Narrenschyff (1494; translated as The Ship of Fools)
that proved most influential. It describes every imaginable
type of fool, such as the complacent priest and deceitful
cook, with the didactic aim of bringing the reader to rec-
ognize his own folly. An immediate popular success—not
least because of its outstanding woodcuts—it went into
numerous editions and was quickly translated into Latin,
French, English, and Dutch. See illustration overleaf.BBrraanntt,, SSeebbaassttiiaann 6699