The Ospedale degli Innocenti in Florence (1421–44)
was hailed as the first Renaissance building, despite being
influenced by Tuscan Romanesque form. The implemen-
tation of a strict modular system, based on the square and
circle, to provide a regularized plan had a profound impact
on town palace architecture. All’ antiqua quotations are ev-
ident in the symmetrically aligned facade with arches car-
ried on Corinthian columns, forming a loggia of
pendentive vaults, which established a new canon of ar-
chitectural beauty. Brunelleschi’s preoccupation with the
classically inspired values of harmony and geometric pro-
portion is demonstrated in the basilica of San Lorenzo,
begun in 1419. Using the square of the crossing as his
module, Brunelleschi established a visual rapport between
the semicircular arches of the nave arcade and the trans-
verse arches of the side aisles. The combination of pietra
serena and white plaster became Brunelleschi’s decorative
leitmotif, used to great effect in the old sacristy of the
same church (1421–28). Once again, the design centered
upon the interplay of a square, that of the main cella, and
a circle, the umbrella dome. The transition of one shape
into another was effected by the pendentives of the dome.
A more sophisticated version of this design was realized in
the Pazzi chapel (1429–69: Sta. Croce, Florence), where a
combination of grey Corinthian pilasters and arches in-
cised onto the white plaster walls, with glazed terracotta
reliefs in the spandrels, subtly emphasized the harmo-
nious proportions of the interior. Although the Spanish
chapel (Sta. Maria Novella, Florence), a Tuscan Ro-
manesque design, exerted a certain influence on the Pazzi
chapel, Brunelleschi’s stress on logical spatial organization
is a typically Renaissance feature.
Brunelleschi’s later designs are characterized by a
more sculptural approach to the treatment of wall mass,
suggesting a renewed study of antiquity. The incomplete
Florentine church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli (1434–37),
with its alternating concave and convex niches scooped
from the outer walls, is the first centrally planned church
of the Renaissance, reflecting the temple of Minerva Med-
ica, Rome. The radiating chapels of Sta. Maria degli Angeli
were adapted to the basilica of San Spirito (1434–82; Flo-
rence), the foundations of which were laid on a chequer-
board grid. The flat pilasters of San Lorenzo were replaced
by half-columns giving a richly plastic spatial rhythm. All
of Brunelleschi’s important works are in Florence, yet his
fame spread to Milan and Urbino, influencing BRAMANTE
and underlying the emergence of the High Renaissance in
Rome. His claim to be considered the first Renaissance ar-
chitect was acknowledged and established by his pupil
and biographer, Antonio Manetti (1423–97).
Further reading: Eugenio Battisti, Brunelleschi: The
Complete Work (London: Thames & Hudson, 1981); Ross
King: Brunelleschi’s Dome: The Story of the Great Church in
Florence (New York: Walker, 2000); Heinrich Klotz, Fil-
ippo Brunelleschi: The Early Works and the Medieval Tradi-
tion (London: Academy Editions and Milan, Italy: Rizzoli,
1990); Howard Saalman, Filippo Brunelleschi: The Build-
ings (London: Zwemmer, 1993).Brunfels, Otto (1489–1534) German physician and
botanist
His Herbarum vivae eicones (1530–36), the first of the
great printed HERBALS, was illustrated with plants drawn
from nature by Hans (II) WEIDITZ, using live models rather
than earlier drawings. In spite of his artist’s originality,
Brunfels’ text still concentrated on the plants known to
the first-century authority Greek Dioscorides, instead of
those of northern Europe.Bruni, Leonardo (Leonardo Aretino) (c. 1370–1444)
Italian humanist scholar and translator
His other name, “Aretino,” derives from his native Arezzo.
Bruni was a pupil of Coluccio SALUTATIand learned Greek
from Manuel CHRYSOLORAS in Florence. His thorough
knowledge of the language enabled him to make the first
idiomatic translations of Greek literature. He spent most
of his mature years as a papal secretary but in 1415 re-
turned to Florence, where, like his master Salutati, he be-
came secretary to the republic (1427–44).
Most of Bruni’s translations were of prose works, al-
though he also translated some passages of Homer and
Aristophanes. In 1406 he produced a translation of
Demosthenes’ De corona and De falsa legatione. By 1414 he
had begun to translate Aristotle’s Ethics. Between 1414
and 1437 he translated six of Plato’s dialogues, including
the Phaedo and Apology, and he sought to reconcile Pla-
tonism with Christian doctrine. These translations were
the means by which the political thought of Greece en-
tered into the life of 15th-century Italy. Bruni also trans-
lated PLUTARCH’s Lives—his Latin was the basis of all early
vernacular translations—and works by the Greek histo-
rian Xenophon. In 1437, at the request of Humfrey, Duke
of Gloucester, he translated Aristotle’s Politics. He wrote
De interpretatione recta to defend his theory of translation
and also discoursed on Ciceronian prose rhythm.
As early as 1404 Bruni had begun work on his history
of Florence, the 12-book Historiarum Florentini populi
libri; this remained unfinished at his death. The work rep-
resented a new departure in HISTORIOGRAPHY, showing the
influence of PETRARCHand Salutati as well as classical
models. It was translated into Tuscan and published by
Donato ACCIAIUOLIat Venice (1476). The estimate Bruni
made of his own Latin scholarship can be gauged by the
fact that he “restored” the lost second decade of the
Roman historian Livy in his work De bello punico primo.
Bruni was buried in Sta. Croce, Florence, at public ex-
pense. With his friends Salutati and NICCOLI, he was one
of the first to use “Humanitas” as a term for literary stud-
ies.BBrruunnii,, LLeeoonnaarrddoo 7733