Learning ❮ 139- Shaping—positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired
behavior to teach a new behavior. - Chaining establishes a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforc-
ing each behavior in a desired sequence and then later rewarding only the completed
sequence.
A reinforcement schedule states how and when reinforcers will be given to the learner.
- Continuous reinforcement—schedule that provides reinforcement following the
particular behavior every time it is exhibited; best for acquisition of a new behavior. - Partial reinforcement or intermittent schedule—occasional reinforcement of
a particular behavior; produces response that is more resistant to extinction. - Fixed ratio—reinforcement of a particular behavior after a specific number
of responses. - Fixed interval—reinforcement of the first particular response made after a specific
length of time. - Variable ratio—reinforcement of a particular behavior after a number of responses
that changes at random around an average number. - Variable interval—reinforcement of the first particular response made after
a length of time that changes at random around an average time period.
Superstitious behaviors can result from unintended reinforcement of unimportant
behavior.
Behavior modification—a field that applies the behavioral approach scientifically
to solve problems (applied behavior analysis).
Token economy—operant training system that uses secondary reinforcers to increase
appropriate behavior; learners can exchange secondary reinforcers for desired rewards.
(Biological) Preparedness—predisposition to easily learn behaviors related to survival
of the species.
Instinctive drift—a conditioned response that moves toward the natural behavior
of the organism.
Cognitivists interpret classical and operant conditioning differently from behaviorists.
Cognitivists reject Pavlov’s contiguity theory that classical conditioning is based on the
association in time of the CS prior to the UCS.
Cognitivist Richard Rescorla’s contingency theory says that the key to classical condi-
tioning is how well the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS.
Latent learning—learning in the absence of rewards.
Insight—the sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem.
Observational learning—learning that occurs by watching the behavior of a model.