146 ❯ Step 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High
drunk is not good, if someone was drunk when he or she hid a gift, he or she might recall
where the gift was hidden when he or she was drunk again.Forgetting
Forgetting may result from failure to encode information, decay of stored memories, or an
inability to access information from LTM. Encoding failure results from stimuli to which we
were exposed never entering LTM because we did not pay attention to them. For example,
most of us cannot remember what is on the front or back of different denominations of
money. We use money to pay for things, yet have never paid attention to the details of the
coins or paper bills. Decay of stored memories can be explained by a gradual fading of the
physical memory trace. We may not remember vocabulary words we learned in a class for
a different language several years ago because we have never used that information, and the
neural connections are no longer there. Relearning is a measure of retention of memory that
assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again. If
relearning takes as much time as initial learning, our memory of the information has decayed.Cues and Interference
Forgetting that results from inability to access information from LTM can result from
insufficient retrieval cues, interference, or motivated forgetting, according to Freud.
Sometimes we know that we know something but can’t pull it out of memory; this is called
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Often, providing ourselves with retrieval cues we asso-
ciate with the blocked information can enable us to recall it. Learning some items may
prevent retrieving others, especially when the items are similar. This is called interference.
Proactive interference occurs when something we learned earlier disrupts recall of some-
thing we experience later. Trying to remember a new phone number may be disrupted by
the memory of an old phone number. Retroactive interference is the disruptive effect of
new learning on the recall of old information. Someone asks us for our old address and it
is blocked because our new address interferes with our recall of it.
Hint: Proactive interference is forward-acting. Retroactive interference is backward-
acting. If we learn A, then B, and we can’t remember B because A got in the way, we
are experiencing proactive interference. If we learn A, then B, and we can’t remember A
because B got in the way, we are experiencing retroactive interference.
Sigmund Freud believed that repression (unconscious forgetting) of painful memo-
ries occurs as a defense mechanism to protect our self-concepts and minimize anxiety.
Freud believed that the submerged memory still lingered in the unconscious mind, and
with proper therapy, patience, and effort, these memories could be retrieved. Repressed
memories are a controversial area of research today, with Elizabeth Loftus being one
of the strongest opponents. She believes that rather than the memory of traumatic events,
such as child molestation, being suddenly remembered during therapy, this phenomenon
is more a result of the active reconstruction of memory and, thus, confabulation, filling
in gaps in memory by combining and substituting memories from events other than the
one we are trying to remember. Loftus has found that when we try to remember details at
an accident scene, our emotional state, the questions a police officer may ask, and other
confusing inconsistencies may result in confabulation. When asked how fast a car was
going when it bumped, smashed, or collided into another vehicle, our estimate of the
speed would probably differ depending on whether bumped or collided was part of the
question. This misinformation effect occurs when we incorporate misleading information
into our memory of an event. Forgetting what really happened, or distortion of infor-
mation at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information—putting
words in someone else’s mouth—or remember something we see in the movies or onTIP