246 Chapter 13universal man whose person combined intellectual and
physical excellence and who was capable of function-
ing honorably in virtually any situation. It was the an-
cient Greco-Roman ideal, brought up-to-date and
applied to life in the Italian city-state where the small
size of the community forced citizens or courtiers to
play many roles. Though most fully described in The
Courtierby Baldassare Castiglione (published in 1528), it
had long been present in the thinking of such educa-
tional theorists as Vittorino da Feltre (1386–1446) and
Leon Battista Alberti (1404–72).
The heart of Renaissance education was ancient lit-
erature and history (see document 13.4). The classics
were thought to provide both moral instruction and the
deep understanding of human behavior without which
correct action in the present is impossible. They were
also a guide to style. The ability to communicate is es-
sential to political life, and good writing comes largely
from immersion in good literature. Humanists taught
the art of persuasion through an exhaustive study of
rhetoric based on the writings of Quintilian and
Cicero.
Because citizens and courtiers would almost cer-
tainly participate in war, study was thought to be
necessary in military history and theory, the art of forti-
fication, and ballistics. Educators regarded proficiency
with weapons and physical fitness as essential for war,
furthermore, like the ancients, they regarded athletic
skill as of value in its own right. The Renaissance man
or woman was also expected to be good company.
Sports were a social skill as was dancing, the ability to
play musical instruments, and the possession of a
trained singing voice. Art was useful, not merely for the
sake of appreciation, but also as a tool of observation.
Before the camera, only drawing or sketching could
preserve a record of visual impressions—or accurately
portray the fortifications of one’s enemies. Other useful
subjects included mathematics, accounting, medicine,
and the natural sciences.
The preferred means of imparting this rather
daunting quantity of knowledge was in small academies
or by means of a tutor. The teacher was supposed to
live with his students and be a moral example and
friend as well as a purveyor of knowledge. Students
were not to be beaten or threatened but induced to
learn by arousing their interest in the subject at hand.
These humanist theories, and the classical examples
from which they came, remain the basis of today’s lib-
eral arts education. They have had an enormous impact
on the formation of European youth and on the devel-
opment of Western culture. However, humanist educa-
tion was intended only for a relatively narrow social
elite: the select group that participated in public life
and exercised some degree of control over its own des-
tiny. Even women were largely excluded, though hu-
manists such as Leonardo Bruni, Juan Luis Vives, and
Thomas More argued that women should be educated
in much the same way as men (see document 13.5).DOCUMENT 13.4
The Value of the Liberal Arts
Peter Paul Vergerio (1370–1444) was a leading Renaissance
educational theorist. The following is from a letter he wrote to
another humanist, Ubertino of Carrara.For no wealth, no possible security against the fu-
ture, can be compared with the gift of education in
grave and liberal studies. By them a man may win
distinction for the most modest name, and bring
honor to the city of his birth however obscure it
may be....
We come now to the consideration of the var-
ious subjects which may rightly be included under
the name of “Liberal Studies.” Among these I ac-
cord the first place to History, on grounds both of
its attractiveness and its utility, qualities which ap-
peal equally to the scholar and to the statesman.
Next in importance is Moral Philosphy, which in-
deed is, in a peculiar sense, a “Liberal Art” in that
its purpose is to teach men the secret of true free-
dom. History, then, gives us the concrete examples
of the precepts inculcated by philosophy. The one
shows what men should do, the other what men
have said and done in the past, and what lessons
we may draw therefrom for the present day. I
would indicate as the third main branch of study,
Eloquence, which indeed holds a place of distinc-
tion among the refined Arts. By philosophy we
learn the essential truth of things, which by elo-
quence we so exhibit in orderly adornment as to
bring conviction to differing minds. And history
provides the light of experience.
Vergirio, Peter Paul. Letter to Ubertino of Carrara. In W.H.
Woodward, ed., Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist
Educators,pp. 106–107. New York: Bureau of Publications,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963.