256 Chapter 14
Pisa elected Alexander V, who was generally accepted
throughout Europe. However, the two prior claimants,
arguing that the council had been called illegally by the
cardinals instead of by a pope, refused to quit. There
were now three popes. Finally, in 1413 Alexander’s suc-
cessor, John XXIII, called the Council of Constance,
which declared itself superior to any pope (see docu-
ment 14.1). John, who had in the meantime been found
guilty of heresy, and the Avignon claimant Benedict
XIII were deposed and Gregory XIII resigned. Martin V
was elected to succeed Gregory, thereby preserving the
legitimacy of the Roman line, which has since been re-
garded as official.
The Schism was over, but the papacy had been
gravely weakened in both fact and theory. The actions
of the council were supported by the work of three
generations of thinkers who had come to believe that
councils representing the entire body of the faithful
had ultimate authority over the church and that the
pope was little more than a symbol of unity. Made
plausible by more than a century of papal scandals,
conciliarism became a formidable obstacle to the gov-
ernance of the church. Fifteenth-century popes feared
with some justification that they might be deposed for
any controversial act, while councils, by their nature,
found making everyday administrative decisions impos-
sible. Legally, the issue was resolved in 1460 when Pius
II forbade appeals to a council without papal authoriza-
tion in the bull Execrabilis.The memory of conciliarism
nevertheless would inhibit papal efforts at reform for
years to come.
Conciliarism also served as a focus for criticisms of
the papacy that had been simmering since the Babylon-
ian Captivity. Other complaints against the papacy,
some of which were adopted by the conciliarists, grew
out of the possessionist controversy. By the end of the
thirteenth century, the Franciscan order had split into
two main factions: the Observant or Spiritual Francis-
cans, who insisted on a literal interpretation of the Rule
of St. Francis, which prohibited the order from owning
property; and the Conventuals, who believed that the
work of the order could be done only if the brothers
lived an orderly life in convents and possessed the mate-
rial resources with which to perform their tasks. After
much argument, the Observant position was condemned
by John XXII. The Observant Franciscans responded
with attacks on the validity of papal authority, many of
which would be used by later critics of the church.DOCUMENT 14.1
The Decree Sacrosancta
By issuing the decree Sacrosancta,the Council of Constance
(1414–17) justified its deposition of three existing popes and the elec-
tion of Martin V. Though repudiated by later popes, the decree helped
to end the Great Schism and provided a concise statement of the concil-
iarist position for future generations.
In the name of the Holy and indivisible Trinity; of the Fa-
ther, Son, and Holy Ghost. Amen.
This holy synod of Constance, forming a general
council for the extirpation of the present schism and the
union and reformation, in head and members, of the
church of God, legitimately assembled in the Holy Ghost,
to the praise of Omnipotent God, in order that it may the
more easily, safely, effectively, and freely bring about the
union and reformation of the church of God, hereby de-
termines, decrees, and declares what follows:
It first declares that this same council, legitimately as-
sembled in the Holy Ghost, forming a general council and
representing the Catholic Church militant, has its power
immediately from Christ, and everyone, whatever his state
or position, even if it be the Papal dignity itself, is bound
to obey it in all those things which pertain to the faith
and the healing of the said schism, and to the general
reformation of the Church of God in head and members.
It further declares that anyone, whatever his condi-
tion, station or rank, even if it be the Papal, who shall
contumaciously refuse to obey the mandates, decrees, or-
dinances or instructions which have been, or shall be is-
sued by this holy council, or by any other general council,
legitimately summoned, which concern, or in any way re-
late to the above mentioned subjects, shall, unless he re-
pudiate his conduct, be subjected to condign penance and
be suitably punished, having recourse, if necessary, to the
other resources of the law.
Council of Constance. “Sacrosancta.” In Edward P. Cheyney, ed.,
Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints,vol. 3, no. 6 Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1898.