310 Chapter 17
conduct a regular census. The first modern census in
England, for example, was held in 1801. Isolated census
data exist for the eighteenth century, such as a Swedish
census of 1750 and the Spanish census of 1768–69,
but most population figures are estimates based on
fragmentary records, local case studies, and demo-
graphic analysis.
The best estimate is that Europe at the start of the
eighteenth century had a total population of 120 to 130
million people (see table 17.1)—less than one-seventh
of the count at the end of the twentieth century. Spain,
the richest world power of the sixteenth century, had a
population of 9.2 million in 1769. A good estimate of
the population of Great Britain (England, Scotland, and
Wales) at the beginning of the eighteenth century is
6.4 million—less than the population of London in
- The strength of France during the Old Regime
can be seen in its estimated population of 19.3 million
in 1700. In all countries, most people lived in small vil-
lages and on isolated farms. Even in a city-state such as
the republic of Venice, more than 80 percent of the
population was rural. In France, one of the most devel-
oped countries of the Old Regime, the figure was more
than 75 percent.
The Economic Structures
of the Rural World
Most of Europe lived, as their ancestors had, in small
villages surrounded by open fields. The land was
parceled for farming in many ways, but the general pat-
tern was consistent: Peasants and small farmers inhab-
ited and worked land that belonged to aristocrats, the
state, or the church. A typical village left some wood-
land standing (for gathering food and fuel), set aside
some of the worst soil as wasteland (for grazing live-
stock), maintained some land as commonly owned, and
left most of the land unfenced in open fields. Enclosed,
or fenced in, fields were rare, but in some regions of
western Europe—such as southwestern England, Brit-
tany, and the Netherlands—the land was already subdi-
vided by fences, stone walls, or hedgerows. Enclosure
had occurred in some places to assist livestock farming
and in others where peasants had been fortunate
enough to acquire their own land. In most of Europe,
however, the arable land was still farmed in the open
field system. From the midlands of England to eastern
Europe (especially the German states and Russia), open
fields were divided into long rectangular strips of ap-
proximately one acre each, defined by grass pathways
between them. A peasant family usually worked several
strips scattered around the community, plus a kitchen
garden near home. This was an inefficient system, but
one that allowed the bad and good fields to be shared
more equitably. In other regions of Europe (such as
Spain, southern France, and Italy) the open fields were
divided into small, irregular plots of land that peasant
families farmed year after year.
Whatever system of land tenure was used, most
plowland was planted with the grains on which the
world lived—wheat, rye, barley, and oats. These crops
were usually rotated annually, and each field laid fallow
on a regular basis, normally every third year (see docu-
ment 17.1). Leaving a field unplanted was needed for
the replacement of nitrates in the soil because chemical
fertilizers were unknown and animal manure was
scarce. Fallow fields had the secondary advantage of
providing additional pasture land for grazing.
Scientific agronomy—the study of field-crop pro-
duction and soil management—was in its infancy in the
Old Regime, but noteworthy changes were appearing.
In Britain, the improvements suggested by the studies
of Jethro Tull and the Viscount Charles Townshend sig-
nificantly increased eighteenth-century harvests. Tull,
a gentleman farmer and scientist introduced a newCountry Population (in millions)
France 19.3
European Russia 17.0
German states 13.5
Prussia 1.6
Italian states 13.0
Austrian Empire 11.0
Poland 9.0
Spain 7.5
Great Britain 6.4
Turkish Empire 6.4
Ireland 2.5
Portugal 2.0
Holland 1.9
Sweden and Finland 1.5
Source: B. R. Mitchell, ed., European Historical Statistics, 1750–1970
(London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 17ff; and Jack Babuscio and Richard M.
Dunn, eds., European Political Facts, 1648–1789(London: Macmillan,
1984), pp. 335ff.TABLE 17.1Estimated Population of Europe in 1700