pleasing aromas (incense), and beautiful flowers—all things the god
can enjoy through the senses. The food given to the god is particu-
larly important, as he eats the “essence,” leaving the remainder for the
worshiper. The food is then prasada (grace), sacred because it came
in contact with the divine. In an especially religious household, the
deity resides as an image and receives the food for each meal before
the family eats. When the god resides in a temple, it is then the duty
of the priests to feed, clothe, and take care of him.
The Chola dynasty ended in the 13th century, a time of politi-
cal, religious, and cultural change in South Asia. At this point, Bud-
dhism survived in only some areas of India. It soon died out com-
pletely there, although the late form of northern Indian Buddhism
continued in Tibet and Nepal. At the same time, Islam, which had
arrived in India as early as the eighth century, became a potent polit-
ical force with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.
Hindu and Islamic art assumed preeminent roles in India in the 13th
century (see Chapter 26).
Southeast Asia
Art historians once considered the art of Southeast Asia an extension
of Indian civilization. Because of the Indian character of many
Southeast Asian monuments, scholars hypothesized that Indian
artists had constructed and decorated them and that Indians had
colonized Southeast Asia. Today, researchers have concluded that no
Indian colonization occurred. The expansion of Indian culture to
Southeast Asia during the first millennium CEwas peaceful and non-
imperialistic, a by-product of trade. In the early centuries CE, ships
bringing trade goods from India and China to Rome passed through
Southeast Asia on the monsoon winds. The local tribal chieftains
quickly saw an opportunity to participate, mainly with their own
forest products, such as aromatic woods, bird feathers, and spices.
Accompanying the trade goods from India were Sanskrit, Buddhism,
and Hinduism—and Buddhist and Hindu art. But the Southeast
Asian peoples soon modified Indian art to make it their own. Art
historians now recognize Southeast Asian art and architecture as a
distinctive and important tradition.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) is an island located at the very tip of
the Indian subcontinent. Theravada Buddhism, the oldest form of
Buddhism, stressing worship of the historical Buddha, Shakyamuni
Buddha, arrived in Sri Lanka as early as the third century BCE.From
there it spread to other parts of Southeast Asia. With the demise of
Buddhism in India in about the 13th century, Sri Lanka now has the
longest-lived Buddhist tradition in the world.GAL VIHARA One of the largest sculptures in Southeast Asia is
the 46-foot-long recumbent Buddha (FIG. 6-26) carved out of a
rocky outcropping at Gal Vihara in the 11th or 12th century. To the
left of the Buddha, much smaller in scale, stands his cousin and chief
disciple, Ananda, arms crossed, mourning Shakyamuni’s death. Al-
though more than a half millennium later in date, the Sri Lankan
representation of the Buddha’s parinirvana reveals its sculptor’s debt
to the classic Gupta sculptures of India, with their clinging garments,
rounded faces, and distinctive renditions of hair (compare FIG. 6-13).
Other Southeast Asian monuments, in contrast, exhibit a marked in-
dependence from Indian models.Java
On the island of Java, part of the modern nation of Indonesia, the
period from the 8th to the 10th centuries witnessed the erection of
both Hindu and Buddhist monuments.BOROBUDURBorobudur (FIG. 6-27), a Buddhist monument
unique in both form and meaning, is colossal in size, measuring
about 400 feet per side at the base and about 98 feet tall. Built over a
small hill on nine terraces accessed by four stairways aligned with the
cardinal points, the structure contains literally millions of blocks of
volcanic stone. Visitors ascending the massive monument on their
way to the summit encounter more than 500 life-size Buddha images,
at least 1,000 relief panels, and some 1,500 stupas of various sizes.
Scholars debate the intended meaning of Borobudur. Most
think the structure is a constructed cosmic mountain, a three-
dimensional mandala where worshipers pass through various realms
on their way to ultimate enlightenment. As they circumambulate
Borobudur, pilgrims first see reliefs illustrating the karmic effects of
various kinds of human behavior, then reliefs depicting jatakas of
the Buddha’s earlier lives, and, farther up, events from the life of
Shakyamuni. On the circular terraces near the summit, each stupa is
hollow and houses a statue of the seated Buddha, who has achieved
spiritual enlightenment and preaches using the Wheel-turning
mudra. At the very top is the largest, sealed stupa. It may once have
contained another Buddha image, but some think it was left empty
to symbolize the formlessness of true enlightenment. Although174 Chapter 6 SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA BEFORE 12006-26Death of the Buddha
(Parinirvana), Gal Vihara,
near Polonnaruwa, Sri
Lanka, 11th to 12th century.
Granulite, Buddha 46long
10 high.
The sculptor of this colossal
recumbent Sri Lankan
Buddha emulated the classic
Gupta style of a half
millennium earlier in the
figure’s clinging robe,
rounded face, and coiffure.
10 ft.6-26AAnanda
Temple, Bagan,
begun 1091.