Republic
In 509 BCEthe Romans overthrew Tarquinius Superbus, the last of
Rome’s Etruscan kings, and established a constitutional government
(see “An Outline of Roman History,” above). The new Roman Repub-
lic vested power mainly in a senate (literally, “a council of elders,”
senior citizens) and in two elected consuls.Under extraordinary cir-
cumstances, a dictator could be appointed for a specified time and
a specific purpose, such as commanding the army during a crisis.
All leaders came originally from among the wealthy landowners, or
patricians,but later also from the plebeian class of small farmers,
merchants, and freed slaves.
Before long, the descendants of Romulus conquered Rome’s
neighbors one by one: the Etruscans and the Gauls to the north, the
Samnites and the Greek colonists to the south. Even the Carthagini-
ans of North Africa, who under Hannibal’s dynamic leadership had
annihilated some of Rome’s legions and almost brought down the
Republic, fell before the mighty Roman armies.
Architecture
The year 211 BCEwas a turning point both for Rome and for Roman
art. Breaking with precedent, Marcellus, conqueror of the fabulously
wealthy Sicilian Greek city of Syracuse, brought back to Rome not
only the usual spoils of war—captured arms and armor, gold and
silver coins, and the like—but also the city’s artistic patrimony. Thus
began, in the words of the historian Livy, “the craze for works of
Greek art.”^1 Exposure to Greek sculpture and painting and to the
splendid marble temples of the Greek gods increased as the Romans
expanded their conquests beyond Italy. Greece became a Roman
province in 146 BCE, and in 133 BCEthe last Attalid king of Pergamon
willed his kingdom to Rome (see Chapter 5). Nevertheless, although
the Romans developed a virtually insatiable taste for Greek “an-
tiques,” the Etruscan basis of Roman art and architecture was never
forgotten. The buildings and statues of the Roman Republic are
highly eclectic, drawing on both Greek and Etruscan traditions.TEMPLE OF PORTUNUS, ROMEEclecticism is the pri-
mary characteristic of the Republican temple on the east bank of
the Tiber popularly known as the Temple of Fortuna Virilis (FIGS.
10-2,no. 1, and 10-3). It is actually a temple dedicated to Por-
tunus, the Roman god of harbors. Its plan follows the Etruscan pat-
tern with a high podium and a flight of steps only at the front. Free-
standing columns are confined to the deep porch. But the structure
is built of stone (local tufa and travertine), overlaid originally with
stucco in imitation of Greek marble. The columns are not Tuscan
but Ionic, complete with flutes and bases, and there is a matching
Ionic frieze (see “Doric and Ionic Orders,” Chapter 5, page 110).
Moreover, in an effort to approximate a peripteral Greek temple yet
maintain the basic Etruscan plan, the architect added a series of
engaged Ionic half columns to the sides and back of the cella. The
result was a pseudoperipteral temple. Although the design combines
Etruscan and Greek elements, the resultant mix is uniquely Roman.Republic 239MONARCHY(753–509 BCE)
Latin and Etruscan kings ruled Rome from the city’s founding by
Romulus and Remus until the revolt against Tarquinius Superbus
(exact dates of rule unreliable).
REPUBLIC(509–27 BCE)
The Roman Republic lasted from the expulsion of Tarquinius Super-
bus until the bestowing of the title of Augustus on Octavian, the grand-
nephew of Julius Caesar and victor over Mark Antony in the civil war
that ended the Republic. Some major figures were
❚Marcellus, b. 268(?), d. 208 BCE,consul
❚Marius, b. 157, d. 86 BCE,consul
❚Sulla, b. 138, d. 79 BCE, consul and dictator
❚Pompey, b. 106, d. 48 BCE,consul
❚Julius Caesar, b. 100, d. 44 BCE, consul and dictator
❚Mark Antony, b. 83, d. 30 BCE,consul
EARLYEMPIRE(27 BCE–96 CE)
The Early Empire began with the rule of Augustus and his Julio-
Claudian successors and continued until the end of the Flavian dy-
nasty. Selected emperors and their dates of rule (with names of the
most influential empresses in parentheses) were
❚Augustus (Livia), r. 27 BCE–14 CE
❚Tiberius, r. 14–37
❚Caligula, r. 37–41
❚Claudius (Agrippina the Younger), r. 41–54
❚Nero, r. 54–68
❚Vespasian, r. 69–79❚Titus, r. 79–81
❚Domitian, r. 81–96
HIGHEMPIRE(96–192 CE)
The High Empire began with the rule of Nerva and the Spanish
emperors, Trajan and Hadrian, and ended with the last emperor of
the Antonine dynasty. The emperors (and empresses) of this period
were
❚Nerva, r. 96–98
❚Trajan (Plotina), r. 98–117
❚Hadrian (Sabina), r. 117–138
❚Antoninus Pius (Faustina the Elder), r. 138–161
❚Marcus Aurelius (Faustina the Younger), r. 161–180
❚Lucius Verus, coemperor with Marcus Aurelius, r. 161–169
❚Commodus, r. 180–192
LATEEMPIRE(193–337 CE)
The Late Empire began with the Severan dynasty and included the
so-called soldier emperors of the third century, the tetrarchs, and
Constantine, the first Christian emperor. Selected emperors (and em-
presses) were
❚Septimius Severus (Julia Domna), r. 193–211
❚Caracalla (Plautilla), r. 211–217
❚Severus Alexander, r. 222–235
❚Trajan Decius, r. 249–251
❚Trebonianus Gallus, r. 251–253
❚Diocletian, r. 284–305
❚Constantine I, r. 306–337An Outline of Roman History
ART AND SOCIETY