lining is incorrect), was an astounding achievement in its day. Ana-
lytical anatomical studies such as this epitomize the scientific spirit
of the Renaissance, establishing that era as a prelude to the modern
world and setting it in sharp contrast to the preceding Middle Ages.
Although Leonardo may not have been the first scientist of the mod-
ern world (at least not in the modern sense of the term), he certainly
originated a method of scientific illustration, especially cutaway
views. Scholars have long recognized the importance of these draw-
ings for the development of anatomy as a science, especially in an
age predating photographic methods such as X-rays.
Leonardo also won renown in his time as both architect and
sculptor, although no surviving buildings or sculptures can be defin-
itively attributed to him. From his many drawings of central-plan
buildings, it appears he shared the interest of other Renaissance ar-
chitects in this building type. As for sculpture, Leonardo left numer-
ous drawings of monumental equestrian statues, and also made a
full-scale model for a monument to Francesco Sforza (1401–1466;
Ludovico’s father). The French used the statue as a target and shot it
to pieces when they occupied Milan in 1499. Due to the French pres-
ence, Leonardo left Milan and served for a while as a military engi-neer for Cesare Borgia (1476–1507), who, with the support of his fa-
ther, Pope Alexander VI (r. 1492–1503), tried to conquer the cities of
the Romagna region in north-central Italy and create a Borgia
duchy. Leonardo eventually returned to Milan in the service of the
French. At the invitation of King Francis I (FIG. 23-10), he then went
to France, where he died at the château of Cloux in 1519.Raphael
Alexander VI’s successor was Julius II (r. 1503–1513). In addition to
his responsibility as the spiritual leader of Christendom, the new pope
extended his quest for authority to the temporal realm, as other me-
dieval and Renaissance popes had done. An immensely ambitious
man, Julius II indulged his enthusiasm for engaging in battle, which
earned him a designation as the “warrior-pope.” Further, his selection
of the name Julius, after Julius Caesar, reinforced the perception that
the Roman Empire served as his governmental model. Julius II’s 10-
year papacy, however, was most notable for his contributions to the
arts. He was an avid art patron and understood well the propagandis-
tic value of visual imagery. After his election, he immediately commis-
sioned artworks that would present an authoritative image of his rule
and reinforce the primacy of the Catholic Church. Among the many
projects he commissioned were a new design for Saint Peter’s basilica
(FIGS. 22-23and 22-24), the painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling (FIG.
22-1), the decoration of the papal apartments (FIG. 22-9), and the
construction of his tomb (FIGS. 22-15and 22-16).584 Chapter 22 ITALY,1500 TO 160022-7Raphael,Marriage of the Virgin,from the Chapel of Saint
Joseph, San Francesco, Città di Castello, Italy, 1504. Oil on wood,
5 7 3 10 –^12 . Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan.
In this early work depicting the marriage of the Virgin to Saint Joseph,
Raphael demonstrated his mastery of foreshortening and of the per-
spective system he learned from his teacher, Perugino (FIG. 21-40).22-8Raphael,Madonna in the Meadow,1505–1506. Oil on wood,
3 81 – 2 2 10 – 41 . Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Emulating Leonardo’s pyramidal composition (FIG. 22-2) but rejecting
his dusky modeling and mystery, Raphael set his Madonna in a well-lit
landscape and imbued her with grace, dignity, and beauty.1 ft.1 ft.22-6ALEONARDO,
Central-plan
church,
ca. 1487–1490.