272 Culture, Identity, and Community: From Slavery to the Presentto dealing with themes of social justice that has earned him
humanitarian status.
Songs produced by Stevie Wonder during the 1960s
and 1970s, including a remake of Bob Dylan’s “Blowin’ in
the Wind,” tackle such themes as the plight of Vietnam vet-
erans, poverty, and government corruption. One of his most
popular songs, “Happy Birthday,” was produced in 1980 as
part of an initiative in which Wonder was involved to ob-
tain federal approval for a national Martin Luther King Jr.
holiday. Implemented as a federal holiday in 1986, the fi rst
Martin Luther King Day was commemorated with a con-
cert at which Wonder performed. During the 1980s, Won-
der also produced songs dealing with apartheid in South
Africa, was active in the “We Are the World” initiative to
focus global attention on the AIDS epidemic in Africa, and
used his music to address themes of gang and domestic
violence. In 2005, he was involved in a Live Aid concert
to focus attention on debt relief and humanitarian aid to
African countries.
See also: Black Folk CultureChishamiso RowleyBibliography
Davis, Sharon. Stevie Wonder: Rhythms of Wonder. London:
Robson, 2006.
Perone, James E. Th e Sound of Stevie Wonder: His Words and Music.
Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006.Work Songs
Th e work song was a secular African American form that
accompanied work. Work songs can be traced to parts of
West Africa, where functional music accompanied a variety
of activities, such as domestic chores and fi eldwork. Similar
to spirituals, work songs were sung by a group that typi-
cally consisted of a leader and group. Th e typical work song
was sung a cappella and either in unison or in a call-and-
response pattern. In the call-and-response structure, the
lead singer sung the call or melody, and the group added
the response or refrain.
Th e leader had the freedom to embellish the melody,
and the group could respond by interpolating vocal infl ec-
tions, for example, moans and shouts. Improvisation andHe fi nanced and produced two albums featuring his own
material and began working with such artists as Deniece
Williams and Syreeta White, whom he later married. Th e
album Talking Book, released in 1972, was a critical and
commercial success that featured the hits “Superstition”
and “You Are the Sunshine of My Life.” Th e album In-
nervisions, released in 1973, extended the themes of social
consciousness refl ected in some of Wonder’s earlier work.
Hit singles from Innervisions include “Living for the City”
and “Higher Ground.” Other critically acclaimed and hit
albums produced during the 1970s include Music of my
Mind (1972); Fulfi llingness’ First Finale (1974); what is
considered by some to be a crowing achievement of this
era, the double album Songs in the Key of Life (1976); and
a movie soundtrack, Journey through the Secret Life of
Plants (1979).
During the 1980s, Stevie Wonder continued to produce
successful albums, including the platinum-selling Hotter
Th an July (1980), which featured hit tributes to Dr. Mar-
tin Luther King Jr. and Bob Marley; Original Musiquarium
(1982), which featured a hit tribute to Dizzy Gillespie; the
soundtrack for the fi lm Th e Woman in Red, which produced
the number 1 hit “I Just Called to Say I Love You” (1984); In
Square Circle (1985), featuring the number 1 pop hit “Part-
Time Lover”; and Characters (1987).
Aft er Characters, Stevie went on a four-year hiatus.
He resurfaced in 1991 with the soundtrack for Spike Lee’s
fi lm Jungle Fever (1991), a mellow production exploring the
theme of interracial relationships. During the 1990s, he also
produced Conversation Peace, which attempted to address
how themes of love, forgiveness, and communication could
be used to prevent human violence. He also produced a live
album, Natural Wonder, which featured energized rendi-
tions of his classic hits.
In addition to his own work, Stevie Wonder has also
written and produced numerous hit songs or collaborated
with other artists, including Michael Jackson, Roberta
Flack, Chaka Khan, Barbara Streisand, Paul McCartney,
the Eurhythmics, Julio Iglesias, and others. He has also in-
fl uenced multiple generations of musicians, including most
recently such artists as India Arie, John Legend, Jodeci, and
Alicia Keys.
Stevie Wonder’s contributions extend beyond music.
Although many consider him a remarkable person be-
cause of his artistic gift s, it is his consistent commitment