Farnese, Alessandro .........................
(1545–1592)
Alessandro Farnese was the son of the
Duke of Parma and grandson of Emperor
Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. He
was a soldier and diplomat who fought
ably in the service of Philip II, the king of
Spain. In 1571, serving under his uncle,
John of Austria, he fought the Ottoman
Turks at the naval Battle of Lepanto. A few
years later he accompanied his uncle to
the Netherlands, at this time a possession
of Spain that was in full-scale rebellion.
Farnese defeated the Protestant opponents
of Catholic Spain at Tournai, Bruges, Gh-
ent, and other important cities. After win-
ning a crucial victory at the Battle
of Gembloux, he was appointed governor
of the territory. In 1579 he persuaded
the Catholic nobles of the southern prov-
inces to form the Union of Arras, which
banished all non-Catholic sects and
supported Philip and his local ruler, Don
Juan of Austria. This agreement inspired
the formation of the Union of Utrecht,
a union of seven northern provinces that
renounced their allegiance to Spain.
Farnese set out with his army to recon-
quer the rebellious provinces, finally be-
sieging the wealthy port of Antwerp
and starving the citizens into submission
in 1585. Farnese was unable to conquer
the rest of the rebellious territory, how-
ever, and eventually Spain was compelled
to recognize their independence.
Farnese invaded France at the head of
a Catholic army in 1589, after the assassi-
nation of King Henry III. His army
fought in support of Catholic opponents
to Henry IV, and in 1590 lifted a Protes-
tant siege of Paris. Wounded at a siege
of Rouen in 1592, he died a few months
later, having lost his title of governor
through the machinations of his rivals in
Spain.Fedele, Cassandra ............................
(1465–1558)
A renowned scholar, born in Venice and
educated in classical literature, rhetoric,
science, philosophy, and the new humanis-
tic tradition. While still a young girl, she
learned to speak Greek and Latin and
started to gain a reputation as a skilled,
persuasive public speaker. She won notice
throughout Italy with a stirring speech she
gave at the University of Padua, on the
graduation of her cousin, praising the
study of the arts and sciences. This speech,
theOratio pro Bertucio Lambert, was
printed in Italy and Germany. She corre-
sponded with the leading scholars of Eu-
rope as well as the nobility. In 1488, she
was invited by Isabella, the future queen
of Spain, to join her court. She refused
this invitation—some historians believe
the Doge of Venice deliberately wished to
keep her as an ornament of his city and
prevented her from moving to Spain. After
her marriage to Giammaria Mapelli in
1499 she traveled to Crete—then a posses-
sion of Venice—with her husband, a phy-
sician. On returning to Venice in 1520, the
couple lost their possessions in a storm.
Soon afterward, her husband died and she
was thrown on hard times. She had ceased
giving public orations and she gradually
fell away from her studies and her corre-
spondence. After writing to Pope Paul III
for help, he appointed her as the prioress
of an orphanage in the church of San Do-
menico di Castello. In 1556 she delivered
her last public speech, to honor a distin-
guished visitor, Bona Sforza, the queen of
Poland. Eighty years after her death, three
of her speeches and 123 letters were pub-
lished.Farnese, Alessandro