Fonte, Moderata ..............................
(1555–1592)
Born Modesta Pozzo, Moderata Fonte was
an author whose work The Worth of
Womenposed an early feminist challenge
to the male domination of society, educa-
tion, and the sciences. She was raised in
Venice by relatives after the death of her
parents; her first work was a chivalric ro-
mance entitledThirteen Cantos of the Flori-
doro. Her most famous work isThe Worth
of Women: Wherein Is Clearly Revealed
Their Nobility and Their Superiority to
Men. This book in a popular literary form,
the dialogue/debate, presents the view of
seven women who discuss the worth of
men and marriage and who demonstrate
that women can hold their own in intel-
lectual argument. The characters include
women of different classes and ages, who
are divided into two main groups: those in
support of marriage, and those resolutely
opposed. The group sets up for itself the
difficult challenge of explaining the many
defects in men’s characters and their un-
dying hostility toward women. Fonte com-
pleted her work shortly before dying in
childbirth at the age of thirty-seven.
fortifications ....................................
Medieval fortifications made siege warfare
a costly business during the Middle Ages.
Thick vertical walls of stone, raised on
high ground and defended by armies of
archers and infantry, could protect a city
indefinitely while an army had to forage in
the surrounding countryside. The innova-
tion of gunpowder and cannon in the
fourteenth century turned the tide, how-
ever. Although defenders could return fire
through gun ports, in time heavy artillery
would always crumble high stone walls. A
new strategy and design was needed.
To absorb cannon fire, military engi-
neers of the Renaissance tore down the
medieval fortifications and rebuilt them
with lower walls, protected behind high
ramparts of earth. They redesigned forts
in a star-shaped pattern, with triangular
bastions and ravelins allowing defenders
to rake attacking positions from several
points at once. Batteries were some dis-
tance from the main citadel, in order for
cannon within the fort to fire from a for-
ward position and make it more difficult
for an attacker to reach the main walls.
Smaller cities surrounded themselves
with walls and bastions, and allowed lim-
ited access to their streets through heavily
defended gates. Larger cities had a series
of defensive works, sometimes ranged as
far as neighboring towns in the country-
side that served as a first line of defense.
In the Renaissance, fortifications became
so effective that outright military conquest
was made nearly impossible for all but the
largest armies. Especially in Italy, the Neth-
erlands, and Spain, where heavy fortifica-
tion was commonplace, war became a tool
of last resort, employed only after the fail-
ure of negotiation and diplomacy.Foscari, Francesco ...........................
(1373–1457)
A famous Doge of Venice, who led the re-
public in its expensive and futile wars
against Milan. Foscari held many impor-
tant positions in the Venetian Republic,
including ambassador, procurator of the
Cathedral of Saint Mark, and member of
the Council of Ten. Foscari was elected
doge in 1423 after the death of Tommaso
Mocenigo. He allied Venice with the city
of Florence, a rival of Milan. The war
dragged on for several years, draining the
treasury of Venice and, at one point, in-Foscari, Francesco