ing the history and nature of contagious
disease, a first step toward the modern un-
derstanding of disease and its causes.
Plague outbreaks continued during the
Renaissance, striking cities seemingly at
random. Cities were affected more than
rural areas; some regions of Europe and
cities were spared, while others were dev-
astated. The plague continued to strike Eu-
rope at regular intervals through the Re-
naissance and did not subside until the
early eighteenth century, when a final seri-
ous outbreak occurred in the French port
of Marseille.
The plague forced cities to organize
new methods of combating epidemics.
Italy led the way during the early Renais-
sance in fighting plague through civic or-
ganizations. The disease prompted Flo-
rence and other cities to create civic
organizations and committees responsible
for new public health measures, such as
the enforcement of sanitary laws, the
prompt disposal of the dead, and the quar-
antining of plague-stricken houses. Special
hospitals were set up to treat plague vic-
tims, and a new system of quarantining
ships was set up in ports, which isolated
crew, passengers, and cargo for a certain
period (usually a month) in order to make
sure the ship was not carrying any epi-
demics. Larger urban administrations be-
came permanent, as cities placed authority
in health officials drawn from the citizenry.
Most believed the plague to be the
workings of God’s wrath for the sins and
corruption of humanity. In places where
the plague struck, it was common for the
citizens to hold public displays of repen-
tance for their sins. At the same time, sci-
entists and doctors were taking the first
steps in understanding how the plague was
transmitted. They examined victims and
watched the progress of the disease, com-
paring cases and taking note of preventive
measures that seemed to work. In this way,
the plague helped medical science to
progress to its modern era of diagnosis,
treatment, and prevention.SEEALSO: Boccaccio, Giovanni; medicinePlato ...............................................
(ca. 428B.C.–348B.C.)
Ancient Greek philosopher who influenced
European philosophy and science through
the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Born
in Athens, he was the son of a noble fam-
ily and was given a good education. As a
young man he came under the influence
of Socrates, a renowned philosopher and
debater. Plato experienced firsthand the
turmoil of politics in his native city and,
after the execution of his friend Socrates
on a charge of corrupting the youth of
Athens, spent time voyaging to Sicily, then
the home of several Greek colonies. When
he returned to Athens he founded a school
known as the Academy. He began writing
dialogues, accounts of debates and conver-
sations among the teachers and philoso-
phers of Athens, with Socrates given an
important role. Plato’s major work, how-
ever, isThe Republic, an account of an
ideal society in which the virtuous and
talented hold leadership and all classes cul-
tivate the virtues of wisdom, courage, and
moderation.
Plato’s school in Athens survived until
the seventh centuryA.D., and Platonic phi-
losophy remained a dominant strain of
thought in the Mediterranean world. While
the Roman Empire was at its height, Neo-
platonism emerged in the Greek city of
Alexandria, founded by several prominent
scholars and commentators and based on
Plato’s metaphysical ideas. Although the
philosophy and science of Aristotle domi-
nated the Middle Ages, Plato’s writingsPlato