The Renaissance

members. Most confraternities were made
up of urbanites who belonged to a grow-
ing middle class of merchants and arti-
sans. In city politics, they became a force
to be reckoned with, often opposed to rul-
ing dynasties and the interests of the no-
bility. Some confraternities were small and
secretive, and modeled themselves on the
apostles of the New Testament. Others
were larger and more public, welcoming
anyone who qualified to enter their ranks.
They were a familiar presence in cities con-
taining churches, meeting houses, and din-
ing halls for the use of their members. A
few, such as the Brotherhood of the Ro-
sary, crossed national boundaries. This
confraternity, founded in Cologne, Ger-
many, by Jacob Sprenger, reached a mem-
bership of 1 million, with members in
Germany, Italy, France, Portugal, Spain,
and the Low Countries.

Confraternities established hospitals
and homes for orphans, the destitute, and
the victims of epidemics. They collected
alms for the poor, and in times of plague
or natural disaster they organized relief
for stricken families who had lost their
breadwinners. A confraternity of Tuscany
founded an ambulance service to trans-
port the sick and wounded, an institution
that has survived into the twenty-first cen-
tury. Some confraternities had a more reli-
gious purpose, organized to build or main-
tain a local parish church, a function more
common in northern Europe.

In Italy confraternities were organized
in certain quarters of the cities and among
certain communities. The structure and
administration paralleled that of the mer-
chant guilds by holding elections for their
leaders and appointing secretaries and
other functionaries. Members had to pass
a review of their history and character,
and had to be approved by a majority vote

of the established members. Strict codes of

behavior were set down for members, who

were expected to contribute regular dues

as well as labor and time; dues in some

confraternities helped fund an early form

of insurance, for the payment of medical,

funeral, and other costs that members

would have to bear in old age.

The confraternities held regular reli-

gious services, Masses, confession, and

communion. Some penitential confraterni-

ties made their goal the expulsion of com-

munity sin by selling indulgences on be-

half of the church, through acts such as

flagellation in public, fasting and solemn

religious processions. Confraternities

staged mystery plays and musical works

such as hymns and Masses that were com-

missioned from local composers.

The Protestant Reformation put an

end to the traditional Catholic confrater-

nities in many parts of northern Europe.

In the doctrine of Martin Luther—who

initiated the Reformation—salvation was

secured by an individual’s faith alone,

which clashed with the Catholic emphasis

on works and public piety. Many confra-

ternities evolved into secular organizations,

or limited their activities to church func-

tions, a fate that was followed in later cen-

turies by Catholic confraternities of south-

ern Europe.

SEEALSO: Catholicism; Reformation, Prot-

estant

Copernicus, Nicolaus ........................

(1473–1543)

Polish astronomer who proposed a helio-

centric (sun-centered) universe, an impor-

tant foundation of modern scientific

thought. Born in the town of Thorn (or

Torun), then ruled by Poland, Copernicus

was a member of a well-to-do merchant

family. After the death of his father, he

Copernicus, Nicolaus