This overwhelming triumph
changed the course and character of
the war. France would probably have
entered the war in any case; the coun-
try had never reconciled itself to its
losses in the Seven Years’ War and for
years had been building a navy capable
of taking on the British. Helping the
Americans was simply another way of
weakening their British enemy. As early
as May 1776 the Comte de Vergennes,
France’s foreign minister, had per-
suaded Louis XVI to authorize the
expenditure of 1 million livres for muni-
tions for America, and more was added
the next year. Spain also contributed,
not out of sympathy for the Revolution,
but because of its desire to injure
Great Britain. Soon vital supplies were
being funneled secretly to the rebels
through a dummy company, Roderigue
Hortalez et Cie. When news of the victory at Saratoga
reached Paris, the time seemed ripe and Louis XVI rec-
ognized the United States. Then Vergennes and three
American commissioners in Paris (Benjamin Franklin,
Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane) drafted a commercial
treaty and a formal treaty of alliance. The two nations
agreed to make “common cause and aid each other
mutually” should war “break out” between France and
Great Britain. Meanwhile, France guaranteed “the sov-
ereignty and independence absolute and unlimited” of
the United States. The help of Spain and France,
Washington declared, “will not fail of establishing the
Independence of America in a short time.”
When the news of Saratoga reached England,
Lord North realized that a Franco-American alliance
was almost inevitable. To forestall it, he was ready to
give in on all the issues that had agitated the colonies
before 1775. Both the Coercive Acts and the Tea Act
would be repealed; Parliament would pledge never to
tax the colonies.
Instead of implementing this proposal promptly,
Parliament delayed until March 1778. Royal peace
commissioners did not reach Philadelphia until June,
a month after Congress had ratified the French treaty.
The British proposals were icily rejected, and while
the peace commissioners were still in Philadelphia,
war broke out between France and Great Britain.
The American Revolution, however, had yet to
be won. After the loss of Philadelphia, Washington
had settled his army for the winter at Valley Forge,
20 miles to the northwest. The army’s supply system
collapsed. Often the men had nothing to eat but
“fire cake,” a mixture of ground grain and water
molded on a stick or in a pan and baked in a camp-
fire. According to the Marquis de Lafayette, one ofJuly 26, and when he stopped to besiege a Patriot
force at Fort Stanwix, General Benedict Arnold had
time to march west with 1,000 men from the army
resisting Burgoyne and drive him back to Oswego.
Meanwhile, with magnificent disregard for the
agreed-on plan, Howe wasted time trying to trap
Washington into exposing his army in New Jersey. This
enabled Washington to send some of his best troops to
buttress the militia units opposing Burgoyne. Then,
just when St. Leger was setting out for Albany, Howe
took the bulk of his army off by sea to attack
Philadelphia, leaving only a small force commanded by
General Sir Henry Clinton to aid Burgoyne.
When Washington moved south to oppose
Howe, the British commander taught him a series of
lessons in tactics, defeating him at the Battle of
Brandywine, then feinting him out of position and
moving unopposed into Philadelphia. But by that
time it was late September, and disaster was about to
befall General Burgoyne.
The American forces under Philip Schuyler and
later under Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold had
erected formidable defenses immediately south of
Saratoga. Burgoyne struck at this position twice and
was thrown back both times with heavy losses. Each day
more local militia swelled the American forces. Soon
Burgoyne was under siege, his troops pinned down by
withering fire from every direction, unable even to bury
their dead. The only hope was General Clinton, who
had finally started up the Hudson from New York.
Clinton got as far as Kingston, about 80 miles below
Saratoga, but on October 16 he decided to return to
New York for reinforcements. The next day, at
Saratoga, Burgoyne surrendered. Some 5,700 British
prisoners were marched off to Virginia.
Saratoga and the French Alliance 123During the American Revolution Fort Niagara was nearly indefensible; later, its walls were
expanded and strengthened.