rather than the Orthodox principality that Rus’ became. Given its geographic location,
it was anyone’s guess how Rus’ would go: it might have converted to the Roman
form of Christianity of its western neighbors. Or it might have turned to Judaism
under the influence of the Khazars. Or, indeed, it might have adopted Islam, given
that the Volga Bulgars had converted to Islam in the early tenth century. It is likely
that Vladimir chose the Byzantine form of Christianity because of the prestige of the
empire under Basil.
That momentary decision left lasting consequences. Rus’, ancestor of Russia,
became the heir of the Byzantium. Choosing Christianity linked Russia to the West,
but choosing the Byzantine form guaranteed that Russia would always stand apart
from Europe.
Division and Development in the Islamic World
While at Byzantium the forces of decentralization were feeble, they carried the day in
the Islamic world. Where once the caliph at Baghdad or Samarra could boast
collecting taxes from Kabul (today in Afghanistan) to Benghazi (today in Libya), in
the eleventh century a bewildering profusion of regional groups and dynasties divided
the Islamic world. Yet this was in general a period of prosperity and intellectual
blossoming.
THE EMERGENCE OF REGIONAL POWERS
The Muslim conquest had not eliminated, but rather papered over, local powers and
regional affiliations. While the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates remained strong,
they imposed their rule through their governors and army. But when the caliphate
became weak, as it did in the tenth and eleventh centuries, old and new regional
interests came to the fore.
A glance at a map of the Islamic world c.1000 (Map 4.4) shows, from east to
west, the main new groups that emerged: the Samanids, Buyids, Hamdanids,
Fatimids, and Zirids. But the map hides the many territories dominated by smaller
independent rulers. North of the Fatimid Caliphate, al-Andalus had a parallel history.
Its Umayyad ruler took the title of caliph in 929, but in the eleventh century he too
was unable to stave off political fragmentation.
