CHAPTER 11 LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES OF MESOAMERICA 421exist in variation with the original forms, but eventually replace them. Such changes
may be recognized and copied not only by speakers of different dialects but even by
speakers of different languages. Relatively casual contact is enough for the borrow-
ing of vocabulary, especially for items or concepts that are newly introduced to the
borrowing group. Changes in pronunciation or grammar—that is, in the structure
of a language—always involve intensive interaction among speakers of the source
and borrowing languages.
In ancient times, the same processes are assumed to have been at work. When lin-
guists detect the effects of these processes, they thereby provide evidence for the ex-
istence of interaction among speakers of the languages involved, for the intensity and
duration of that interaction, and for the nature of that interaction. Historical recon-
struction from the imprint of culture on language is discussed later in this chapter.
Language Endangerment
There is some documentation from the early sixteenth century of languages from
most of the different language families of Mesoamerica. On the basis of these and
later records, we know that some languages once spoken in the region are no longer
spoken. Most of the indigenous languages of Mesoamerica today are seriously en-
dangered. We also know that language is so much a part of a people’s cultural iden-
tity that they rarely give up their own language willingly, that is, without having been
subjected to large-scale, invasive, and coercive social processes.
Why have so many languages of Mesoamerica died out? A partial answer is that
in nation-states, minority languages that do not have political and cultural auton-
omy are alwaysendangered. As a result, work on language rights and efforts to im-
prove the long-term outlook for endangered languages around the world is now a
priority for many governments, foundations, and human rights organizations.
In Mesoamerica, the most seriously endangered languages are moribund (dying):
These languages are virtually restricted to private use among elderly adults. Next
most seriously endangered are obsolescent(or dwindling) languages: Few or no children
are learning these languages, but adults use them in a variety of both public and pri-
vate contexts as in family settings, among friends, and at ceremonies such as weddings;
and in civic events, such as political rallies, though usually not in speech events that
are part of governmental action. The least endangered languages are threatened:Not
all children are learning the language, and Spanish is becoming more widely known
and used in response to heavy external pressure for bilingualism, but the language
is used in all private and public contexts (apart from government and law). Some of
these languages are moving toward obsolescence, with their transmission to children
decreasing and/or the range of contexts of their use being reduced. All indigenous
languages in Mesoamerica are endangered in at least this way.
The main direct cause of language endangerment and ultimately of language loss
is a process called language shift:The speakers of one language begin using another
language in place of it. Typically such speakers are at first bilingual in their native lan-
guage and in Spanish, whose use is initially the only means of engaging with national
and provincial institutions, and later with nonlocal commercial interests (often forced