448 UNIT 4 MESOAMERICAN CULTURAL FEATURES
children. Two centuries after the arrival of the Spaniards, Aztec women’s identity
had merged with that of their husbands; women needed the support of husbands or
fathers to present a claim in court. Men became the representatives of women in
legal and political matters.
Although Aztec women continued to engage in productive activities crucial to
their families’ survival, the ideology of female purity and enclosure preached by the
Catholic Church further undermined their opportunity to hold formal positions of
authority. This ideology created a sharp division between a male social and political
domain, and a female domestic domain. In two centuries, patriarchal ideology and
its impact on the religious, social, and legal system had transformed precolonial gen-
der parallelism into stridently hierarchical relations between men and women.The Gender System Imposed by the Spaniards
Few colonial sources exist by or specifically about women (whether indigenous or
Spanish). However, researchers are now probing colonial documents (e.g., censuses,
confessional manuals, Inquisition records, and cases brought before ecclesiastical
or civil authorities) for information about gender relationships in colonial society.
What were the main characteristics of the new gender system? Priests and Span-
ish officials alike extolled the patriarchal system as the divine design for humanity.
The family epitomized this ideal and served as a model for all social relationships. A
husband had control over his wife, his children, and any other members of the house-
hold. Women and children were always minors under the tutelage of fathers to whom
they owed total obedience. Patriarchal ideology defined fathers as the source of au-
thority. Their legitimacy rested upon their responsibility to support and look after the
well-being of their families. They had the latitude to punish and even strike wives to
correct their behavior. However, when husbands exercised excessive authority or
when they did not support their families as was expected, wives could appeal to re-
ligious or secular authorities. Sometimes women opted to return to their parents’
homes or seek refuge in convents, where they felt safe and were able to find work. A
few court cases describe women who fought back, probably in self-defense.
Spaniards regarded virginity as an essential quality of women before marriage and
when they remained single. The honor of the family was inextricably linked with fe-
male sexuality and the birth of legitimate children. A woman who engaged in pre-
marital or extramarital affairs and who had an illegitimate child tarnished her
personal reputation and brought dishonor to her family. The double standard of
morality pervaded colonial society; whereas a woman’s reputation suffered greatly
from liaisons, neither her lover’s reputation nor his family’s honor suffered ill con-
sequences. During the first two centuries of colonial rule, emphasis on family honor
and concepts of women’s virtue and vulnerability led to women’s seclusion at home.
Convents and retirement houses provided protection for older unmarried women,
widows, and abandoned wives. The Church glorified celibacy as one path to perfec-
tion; women who followed the Virgin Mary’s model were seen as closer to God.
On the other hand, patriarchal ideology maintained that women’s will and honor
were fragile; that is, men could easily convince or force women to engage in illicit re-