The Upper Extremity 409horizontal abduction tends to be linked with adduc-
tion of the scapula (trapezius, rhomboids).
Special Considerations for the Shoulder Complex in Dance
In activities of daily living, many of the movements of
the shoulder primarily function to position the hand.
However, in dance, shoulder movements have aes-
thetic and gestural importance as well as functional
importance. Different dance forms often utilize
prescribed placement or carriage of the arms that
can vary markedly between and within dance forms
such as ballet, modern, jazz, and ethnic dance. This
use of the arms is often subtle and may take years
of concentrated training to master. Although the
detailed use of the arms is beyond the scope of this
book, a few general principles that apply to many
dance forms are helpful to look at from a kinesio-
logical perspective. These include avoiding excessive
lifting of the shoulders, keeping the scapula wide,
and connecting the arms to the torso. In addition,
special demands are placed on the shoulder complex
with partnering and use of positions in which the
body weight is supported by the arms.
Lifting the Shoulders
One of the most common technique errors related to
use of the arms in dance is excessive lifting or hiking
of the shoulders, or in kinesiological terminology,
excessive scapular elevation (figure 7.32A). In many
forms of dance the goal is to emphasize upward
rotation of the scapulae without visible scapular
elevation when the arms are raised from the sides
(figure 7.32B). Theoretically, this aesthetic can be
achieved by appropriate use of the serratus anterior
and lower trapezius—synergists that can assist with
upward rotation but also produce scapular depres-
sion to counter the elevation of the upper trapezius
(see figure 7.25, p. 402). However, many dancers
have difficulty achieving this, and the tendency for
excessive elevation can be countered by strengthen-
ing the lower trapezius and serratus anterior (see
table 7.10C, p. 435) and by focusing on using more
scapular depression. Cues such as (1) focusing on
reaching the arms down and then out before raising
them overhead, or (2) imagining that the scapulae
have weights such that the medial border pulls down
as the acromion process rotates up can sometimes
help recruit the appropriate scapular depressors
while still allowing the necessary upward rotation
of the scapulae.
In certain movements, such as some floor work,
dancers can avoid excessive elevation of the shoul-
ders by contracting muscles that tend to depress
the humerus in addition to using the muscles just
discussed that depress the scapula. The latissimus
dorsi and lower portion of the pectoralis major can
function to help depress the humerus when the
arms are down by the sides. You can feel this action
of humeral and scapular depression when pressing
down on the arms of a chair to come to standing if“Connect Your Arms to Your Back”
L
ooking at the possible actions of the anterior deltoid, middle deltoid, and posterior deltoid (refer
to figures 7.14-7.16 [pp. 387, 389, and 390] and table 7.2 [pp. 391-392]), one can see that all of
the fundamental shoulder movements can be accomplished with these muscles alone. However, in
dance there is the desire to use some of the larger muscles of the shoulder that connect the arms to
the trunk rather than just the shoulder girdle. For example, the latissimus dorsi has extensive attach-
ments, including onto the spine, pelvis, and lower ribs. When holding the arms in second position,
dancers are sometimes directed to think of lightly pressing the arms down, even though the arms are
remaining stationary in space. When following this directive, the latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major
can often be seen or felt contracting—acting isometrically as shoulder adductors—while the shoulder
abductors contract to maintain the arms at shoulder height. Such co-contraction can provide a differ-
ent look and kinesthetic sensation of a greater “connection of the arms to the trunk” through use of
muscles with more extensive attachments onto the trunk than that of the deltoid muscle.