230 CHAPTER 16^ Foundations of Persuasion
Invitational rhetoric, a form of reasoning often associated with women, is a
model of cooperative, dialogical communication in which you and your audiences
generate ideas. Because it is rooted in affirmation and respect, it’s arguably an ethical
way of coming to conclusions. Further, because you’re not intent on controlling the
ideas of others, you can disagree without figuratively going to war.Summary
Whether you are making simple daily decisions or arguing about complex national
policy questions, the canon of invention provides you with many resources for making
sound decisions. Although it is often impossible to prove a claim beyond any doubt, you
can at least interweave a variety of reasoning strategies to support your ideas.
Aristotle presented three kinds of artistic proofs thousands of years ago. They are
artistic because you, the speaker, must create them. He considered the first proof, ethos
or personal credibility, to be the most important. Although elements of credibility vary
across cultures, believable speakers should demonstrate good character, goodwill, good
sense, and dynamism.
Pathos or emotional proofs involve appeals to your listeners’ positive and negative
emotions as well as their needs. The chapter presented five basic needs: survival, security,
belonging and love, esteem, and self-actualization. Emotions combine to form motiva-
tions that are both complex and mixed, and emotional appeals should be tested to see if
they make sense.
The final proof, logos or rational proof, comes from your words. Analogies, both
figurative and literal, involve reasoning by comparison. Inductive reasoning draws
generalizations or conclusions from a number of examples. Then, using deductive
reasoning, generalizations are applied to particular cases. Finally, causal or cause–effect
reasoning links things that exist in time in such a way that the second results from the
first. All these methods require the application of specific tests; otherwise, they can lead
to fallacious or faulty conclusions.
An alternative way to make sense of complex issues is to practice invitational
rhetoric based on equality, individual value, and self-determination rather than on
control. You offer your perspectives and create conditions in which others are free to
offer theirs. Absolute listening and reversibility of perspectives let you hear and learn
from the viewpoints of others. Change may or may not result.Study and Review
Public Speaking: Concepts and Skills for a Diverse Society offers a broad range of
resources that will help you better understand the material in this chapter, complete
assignments, and succeed on tests. Your MindTap resources feature the following:
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• Interactive versions of this chapter’s Stop and Check activities, as well as Critical
Thinking Exercises and Application Exercises
• Speech Builder Express
• Weblinks related to chapter content
• Study and review tools such as self-quizzes and an interactive glossary
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