282 Understanding Intuitive Decision Making
about the two candidates. Instead, they fi rst conducted an attribute-based search and compared
the two candidates on the basis of a few traits or attributes. Then they used a noncompensatory
choice rule called the majority-of-confi rming-dimensions rule and chose the candidate with the highest
number of favorable comparisons. Only if this comparison resulted in a tie did voters decide on the
basis of political party stereotypes. Interestingly, this model of voter decision making appears to be
highly predictive of voter choice.^284
When the audience’s task is to evaluate a single individual, as opposed to decide among different
individuals, the two rules audiences most frequently use are the weighted and unweighted aver-
aging rules.^285 Both rules are compensatory and rely on alternative-based search. And both have
much in common with the normative weighted additive choice rule.
In his seminal study of information integration, social psychologist Norman Anderson asked
participants to read paragraphs about several U.S. presidents and then to rate each president’s states-
manship and accomplishments on a scale that that ranged from 0 to 10. For each president readers
received two paragraphs that were either positive, neutral, or negative toward that president. Read-
ers who read two positive paragraphs about a president formed a very positive impression of him.
Readers who received both a neutral and a positive paragraph formed a moderately positive impres-
sion. And readers who received two negative paragraphs formed an extremely negative impression.
Professor Anderson found that all readers, even those who were exposed to confl icting messages
about a president, formed an impression that corresponded to the unweighted average value of the
two messages.^286
Audiences use the weighted and unweighted averaging rules to evaluate others in a wide range
of situations. In a study of personnel selection, personnel managers read verbal descriptions of job
applicants’ personality traits. Each trait was described in terms of one of four scale values (low, below
average, above average, and high). The results showed that the personnel managers used the weighted
averaging rule to judge each of the applicants.^287 In a study of health care decisions, parents read
verbal descriptions of pediatricians and were asked to evaluate them. Each pediatrician was described
in terms of the doctor’s ability to handle children and the quality of her staff ’s manners. Each of these
attributes varied across four scale values (low, below average, above average, and high). In this case, the
parents evaluated each pediatrician using the unweighted averaging rule.^288
Audiences also use averaging rules to integrate visual information about other people with
verbal information about them. In a study of visual/verbal information integration, female college
students looked at photographs of male college students, read descriptions of the male students’
personal characteristics, and then evaluated the male students’ dating desirability. The study showed
that the female students used the weighted averaging rule to integrate the male students’ physi-
cal attractiveness with the verbal descriptions of their personal characteristics.^289 A study of juror
decision making comes to a similar conclusion: Jurors decide the guilt or innocence of defendants
by combining relevant verbal information with the defendants’ nonverbal behaviors using the
weighted averaging rule.^290
What types of information do audiences tend to weight more heavily when integrating infor-
mation about the people they perceive? Research shows that audiences tend to give more weight
to information that is inconsistent with the other information they have about the individual.^291
It also shows that they weight negative information more heavily than positive information.^292
Recruiters weight negative information about job applicants more heavily^293 because they believe
that negative behaviors, as well as extreme ones, are particularly diagnostic of job applicants’ per-
sonality traits.^294
When making some types of decisions, audience members must also be able to integrate quantitative
information with their subjective impressions of others. For example, when loan offi cers make lending