Emotions in Audience Decision Making 337
result from uncontrollable situational forces.^322 Incidental sadness affects the audience’s risk/reward
preference as well. For example, job applicants put into a sad mood prefer job opportunities that
offer both high risk and high reward.^323
Audiences put into sad moods generally agree with persuasive messages that emphasize sadden-
ing problems or outcomes. They have more favorable views of a message if it argues that failing to
adopt a position is likely to make bad things happen than if it argues that adopting the position will
make good things happen.^324 In a study of the effects of incidental moods on persuasion, readers
who were in a neutral mood or who were put into a sad mood read one of two equally strong argu-
ments for a proposed tax increase. One argument justifi ed the proposed tax increase by claiming it
would help address saddening problems (e.g., the plight of senior citizens). The other justifi ed the
increase by claiming it would address angering problems (e.g., long traffi c delays). The saddening
reasons, but not the angering ones, persuaded readers in a sad mood. In addition, the sadder a reader
felt, the more positively she responded to the tax proposal justifi ed by the saddening reasons. Nei-
ther type of argument persuaded readers in a neutral mood to support a tax increase.^325
In many cases, audiences put into sad moods will process persuasive messages in a rational and
deliberate way despite their mood.^326 One study asked students to read either strong or weak
arguments for a proposed fi nal examination before graduation. Students put into sad moods were
persuaded only by the strong arguments, whereas students put into happy moods were moderately
persuaded by both strong and weak arguments.^327
The Effects of Incidental Anger
Audiences put into angry moods, such as listeners to politically oriented talk radio, tend to make
optimistic judgments and risk-seeking decisions just as happy people do.^328 But unlike happy
people, audiences put into angry moods overestimate the frequency of angering events.^329 Angry
audiences also believe that negative events caused by human agents are more likely to occur than
sad ones where no one is to blame.^330 Consequently, audiences put into angry moods are more
likely to quickly attribute blame to others, to perceive another’s ambiguous behavior as hostile,
and to punish others for their mistakes.^331 As compared with mock jurors in neutral moods, mock
jurors who are angry are more likely to ignore evidence that would exonerate the defendant.^332 As
compared with voters who are sad, angry voters are more likely to support vengeful policies and
reject policies that are conciliatory.^333
Audiences put into angry moods are less likely to comply with persuasive messages.^334 They
do tend to agree, however, with persuasive messages that emphasize angering problems. In one
study of incidental mood effects, researchers fi rst hypnotized newspaper readers to feel either
anger or disgust and then asked them to read one of two reviews of a local restaurant. One review
consisted of several positive comments as well as several negative comments that were associated
with anger (e.g., an extremely careless waiter). The other review consisted of several positive
comments as well as several negative comments that were associated with disgust (e.g., a view
of the garbage). Readers put into an angry mood formed the most negative attitudes toward the
restaurant after they read the review with the angry comments.^335 In a similar study, readers were
put into an angry or sad mood and then asked to read arguments for a proposed tax increase.
Readers in angry moods were more persuaded by arguments that described the angering conse-
quences of inaction.^336
Audiences put into angry moods tend to process persuasive messages without much rational
thought or deliberation.^337 For example, mock jurors who are put into an angry mood are more
likely than sad ones to convict a defendant on the basis of an ethnic stereotype.^338 Yet because
audience members in an angry mood preferentially attend to arguments hostile to their own