Using Logic and evidence to Persuade 17.2 385
use new evIDenCe By “new,” we don’t just mean recent, although contem-
porary evidence is often perceived to be more credible than is evidence that’s out
of date. But besides seeking up-to-date evidence, try to find evidence that the lis-
tener hasn’t heard before—evidence that’s new to the listener. You don’t want the
listener to think, “Oh, I’ve heard all of that before.” Audience members are more
likely to keep focusing on your message when they are learning something new.
use speCIFIC evIDenCe “Many people will be hurt if we don’t do some-
thing now to stop global climate change,” said Julia. How many people will be
hurt? What precisely will happen to them? Julia would make her point more
effectively if she cited specific evidence that, for example, identified how many
homes would be lost as a result of rising ocean levels rather than just saying
“many people” or “a lot of people.”
use evIDenCe to tell a story Facts, examples, statistics, and opinions
may be credible, new, and specific—yet your evidence will be even more power-
ful if it fits together to tell a story to make your point. Besides listing the problems
that will occur because of global warming, Julia could personalize the evidence
by telling a story about how the rising ocean levels will hurt individual families.
Using evidence to support a story adds emotional power to your message and
makes your evidence seem less abstract.^18
use evIDenCe approprIate to a DIverse auDIenCe Because we
believe that messages should be audience-centered rather than source-centered,
we suggest that you consider your listeners to determine the kind of evidence
that will be the most convincing to them. What may be convincing evidence to
you may not be such an obvious piece of evidence for others.
According to intercultural communication scholars Myron Lustig and
Jolene Koester, “There are no universally accepted standards about what consti-
tutes evidence.”^19 They suggest that for some Muslim and Christian audiences,
parables or stories are a dramatically effective way to make a point. A story is
told and a principle is derived from the lesson of the story.
For most North Americans and Europeans, a superior form of evidence is
an observed fact. A study by two communication scholars reported that both
African Americans and Hispanic Americans found statistical evidence more per-
suasive than stories alone.^20 Statistics, said the respondents, are more believable
and verifiable; stories can more easily be modified.
Stories, or illustrations, may be problematic for other reasons as well. As we
noted in Chapter 16, eyewitness testimony is not perceived as credible in some
African cultures. It’s believed that if you speak up to report what you saw, you
may have a particular slant on the event and, therefore, what you have to say
may not be believable.^21
If you are uncertain whether your listeners will perceive your evidence as
valid and reliable, you could test your evidence on a small group of people who
will be in your audience before you address the entire group.