A History of Modern Europe - From the Renaissance to the Present

Medieval Continuities 5

in the eleventh or twelfth century, now helped guide European exploration
across the oceans.

Spanish and Portuguese conquerors and merchants seeking riches in the
New World established the first European transoceanic empires. Popula­
tion growth; the growth of trade and manufacturing, which facilitated the
exchange of ideas and gradually increased the standard of living; the use of
gunpowder and the compass; and the development of printing all stimu­
lated and facilitated the establishment of colonies across the oceans by the
European powers.

Medieval Continuities

England and France emerged as sovereign states, standing as exceptions

amid the territorial fragmentation that characterized medieval Europe.

Smaller territories also began to coalesce into larger units and rulers consol­

idated and extended their authority. European society took on the shape it

would have for centuries, with three orders—clergy, nobles, and peasants—

standing in relationships of mutual obligation to each other. Material well­

being remained at a subsistence level for most peasants but nonetheless

improved overall as commercial trade across greater distances began to rise

in the eleventh century. Moreover, small-scale textile manufacturing devel­

oped as towns grew, particularly in Italy and northwestern Europe during

the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

The Fragmentation of Europe

With the end of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, Europe experienced

an influx of new peoples. From the east came the Magyars (Hungarians),

who settled in Central Europe, where they were converted to Christianity.

From Scandinavia came the so-called Northmen (Norse or Vikings), who

reached Ukraine, and who for the most part became Christians. Arabs

invaded Europe in the eighth century, subsequently expanding their influ­

ence into North Africa, as well as Spain. Mongols poured into what is now

Russia and Ukraine, sacking Kiev in the 1230s, before their empire began to

collapse in the fifteenth century. The princely state of Muscovy, which had

been one of their tributaries, gradually expanded in size, reaching the south­

ern Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea and emerging as a dynastic state.

This multitude of influences contributed to both the political and cultural

fragmentation of Europe.

In 1500, Europe was a maze of about 1,500 fragmented states. Eco­

nomic, political, and judicial institutions were overwhelmingly local. Territo­

ries and cities were subject to a confused array of overlapping jurisdictions.

The city-states of Italy and the trading towns of northern Germany managed

to preserve their independence from territorial rulers. The town walls that