Conflicts between the Great Powers 403

before. The discipline and efficiency of troops in formation won or lost
battles. Muskets, inaccurate beyond a short distance, were fired in deadly
volleys by rows of soldiers taking turns reloading. Cavalry charges, which
generally took place on the flanks of battle with the goal of neutralizing the
enemy’s cavalry, usually were over quickly.
New tactics had brought greater maneuverability in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, including linear formations involving coordinated
movements that required well-trained and disciplined troops. In the eigh­
teenth century, even greater troop mobility was achieved by combining line
and column formations in a “mixed order.” Moreover, the British and Pruss­
ian armies were the first to create a light infantry division that could engage
the enemy more rapidly, often fighting with bayonets. Yet defense still dom­
inated in battle, as symbolized by the impregnable fortresses along the
northern frontier of France built in the late seventeenth century. Line for­
mations were more conducive to defense than offense.
Following the unrestrained carnage of the Thirty Years’ War (1618—
1648), warfare became somewhat more civilized, or at least somewhat more
predictable, with fewer civilian casualties. Prisoners of war, even common­
ers, were kept in relatively decent conditions and were sometimes exchanged
for their counterparts. The development of logistical support and profession­
alized, well-drilled armies meant that soldiers no longer had to live off the
land. The goals of warfare were now generally restrained by traditions of
monarchical and aristocratic civility. Once victory was achieved, there
seemed no reason to pursue one’s enemy to finish him off. Civilians were
now generally spared in times of war.

Navies

British statesmen knew that to maintain superiority over France on the

seas, their enemy had to be kept busy on the continent, whether by direct

military operations or by large subsidies paid to France’s enemies among

the German states. The Royal Navy had begun to grow in size during the

second half of the seventeenth century. As its role in protecting commerce

increased, it expanded further, from 105 ships in 1750 to 195 in 1790,

while the smaller French navy increased only modestly in size to 81 war­

ships, 9 more than those of the Spanish navy.

Building on earlier improvements in sails, rigging, charts, and navigational

techniques, the size and quality of ships improved. Shipbuilding drew on

scientific assistance from experts in mathematics and navigation. The

British first added copper to hulls, which made their ships sturdier. Short­

barreled cannon of greater caliber proved deadly in close combat.

Navies were also beset by problems of desertion, at least when ships

were in port. Almost one-fourth of the men who joined the British navy

between 1776 and 1780 deserted—many of whom had been dragged to

the docks by press-gangs. Shipboard disease killed many sailors, despite