Medieval Continuities 15

Beer was limited to northern Europe, particularly the German states, Eng­
land, and Scandinavia.
Agricultural growth, which had been steady until the beginning of the
fourteenth century, slowed down until the mid-fifteenth century in the
wake of the Black Death. But once the population began to grow again,
plots that had been abandoned were plowed once more. In regions of rela­
tively fertile land, the “three-field system” became more common. This left
about a third of all land fallow (unplanted) in order to replenish its fertility
during the growing season. This mode of agricultural production necessi­
tated relatively sizable landholdings, and thus could not be used on small
peasant plots. But over the long run it increased agricultural yields. Yet this
did not necessarily aid the peasant family, because dependency on a
seigneur could force them to give more attention to cultivation in the inter­
est of the lord, leaving less time to supplement the family economy by
hunting, fishing, or looking after livestock. Overall, however, farming tech­
niques and tools improved during the fifteenth century. Innovations such
as the use of mills and metal harvesting implements were introduced,
although not adopted in some places until much later. These methods
would remain basically the same until the nineteenth century.
Free peasants contributed to the rise in agricultural production. Not all
peasants were desperately poor. Many could survive (and a minority did
quite well) when famine, disease, and war left them alone, selling in the
nearest market what produce they had left over after replanting and oblig­
ations to lords and the Church had been paid up for that year.

The medieval innovation of the three-field system allowed for the renewal of one

field by leaving it fallow for a season.